Unit V- QUANTUM COMPUTATION

Classical Computing
The principles of classical physics and mathematical reasoning form the foundation of classical
computing.
Traditional computer software is designed for serial computation. It indicates that one task must
be finished before starting another.
Parallel computing is possible on a computer with multiple processors. It means it can work on
multiple tasks at the same time, and the results should be integrated.
Moore’s Law
Moore’s law is not a natural law. It is an observation made by Gordon G. Moore.
It states that the number of transistors on a computer chip and, thus, its power doubles
every 2 years.
Computer hardware is getting smaller, cheaper and faster. This is possible due to the
miniaturization of ICs (integrated circuits). It means the spacing between the transistors and
other components keeps on decreasing.
Is Moore’s law still holding?
Although Moore’s law trend continued for more than 50 years, the transistor counts doubled
after 3 years, not 24 months.
Need for quantum computing:
There are two problems associated with miniaturization.
1) When the separation between the components is of the order of atomic dimensions, the
uncertainty principle and other quantum mechanical laws become prominent. In other words,
the computation based on classical physics will no longer be reliable.
2) The heat produced by one component will affect the performance of another component.
Modern computers generate a lot of heat.
Quantum computing:
A quantum computer is a machine that performs calculations based on the laws of quantum
mechanics, which is the behaviour of particles at the sub-atomic level.
The fundamental concept of classical computation and information is a “bit”. The data is stored
in a bit. The bit can take the value 0 or 1.
The corresponding parameter in a quantum computer is a quantum bit or qubit.
Quantum Superposition
Quantum superposition is a phenomenon associated with quantum systems such as nuclei,
electrons and photons, for which wave-particle duality and other non-classical effects are
observed. A quantum system can exist in more than one state at the same time. The result of
the measurement is the observation of some definite state with a given probability.
Quantum superposition is easily demonstrated using a coin. A coin has a 50/50 probability of
landing as either heads or tails while flipped in the air.
What state is the coin in while it is in the air? Is it heads or tails?
We can say that the coin is in a superposition of both heads and tails. When it lands, it has a
definite state, either heads or tails. The word “state” means any particular way that a system
can possibly be described. For example, the coin can be either heads, or tails, or a combination
of heads or tails while flipped in the air. All of these cases are called states of the coin system.
The measurement destroys the superposition.
Qubit:
A qubit, like a bit, also makes use of two states |0⟩ and |1⟩ to hold information.
Mathematically, qubits |0> and |1> can be represented as column matrices:
𝟏 𝟎
|0> = ; |1> =
𝟎 𝟏
However, unlike classical bits, the state of a qubit, |Ψ> can also be in a superposition of |0>
and |1> states.
It can be written as |Ψ> =α |0> + β |1>
Where, α and β are generally complex numbers which represent the probability amplitudes of
the states.
When a qubit is measured, it only results in either |0> or |1>.
Summation of probabilities
The probability of measuring the qubit in state |0> is |α|2, and the probability of measuring the
qubit in state |1> is |β|2.

Since the total probability of observing all the states of the quantum system must add up to
100%, the amplitudes must follow this rule:

|α|2 +|β|2 =1
This is called a normalization rule.
Physical Realization of Qubits:
In a classical computer, the 0- and 1-bit mathematically represent the two allowed voltages
across a wire in a classical circuit. Semiconductor devices called transistors are used to control
what happens to these voltages.

Type of qubits

In quantum computing, several physical systems have been proposed and implemented to
realize qubits, each with its own advantages and challenges.

1. Superconducting Qubits:
These are the most common types of qubits in current quantum computation. These are
based on the Josephson junction, a device that allows the flow of super current without
resistance.
Advantages:
 Fast quantum operations
 Easily fabricated using existing semiconductor technology
Disadvantages:
 Require super cooling using expensive cryogenic systems
 Short coherence time compared to some other qubits
2. Trapped ions Qubits
These qubits are based on the electronic and nuclear spin states of the individual ions.
These ions are trapped using an electric field and are manipulated using a laser. Trapped
ion qubits can be implemented using calcium, magnesium, and beryllium.
Advantages:
 Very long coherence times
 Strong interaction between qubits, making entanglement easier
Disadvantages:
 Slower gate operations compared to superconducting qubits
 Complex hardware and laser control systems
3. Photonic Qubits
These are based on the quantum properties of light, such as polarization and phase.
They are manipulated using optical components such as beam splitters, phase shifters
and detectors.
 Advantages:
 Do not require super cooling
 Very low interaction with the environment (low decoherence)
Disadvantages:
 Photons do not naturally interact with each other
 Difficult to perform two-qubit operations
4. Spin Qubits
These qubits use spin states of subatomic particles, such as electrons and nuclei, to
represent quantum information. The spin of a particle can be in one of two states, "up"
or "down," which are analogous to the 0 and 1 states in classical computing. These spin
states can be manipulated and controlled using electric and magnetic fields, making
them promising candidates for building solid-state quantum computers.
Advantages:
 Long coherence times (especially nuclear spin qubits)
 Compatible with existing semiconductor technologies
Disadvantages:
 Difficult control at the atomic level
 Complex readout and manipulation techniques

Differences between classical bit and quantum bit (qubit)

Sl. Classical bit Quantum bit (qubit)

No.
1. It can be in two distinct states, 0 and 1. It can be in states |0> or |1> or in any
other state that is a linear combination
of the two states.
2. It can be measured completely. It can be measured partially with a
given probability.
3. It is not changed by measurement. It is changed by measurement.
4. It can be copied. It cannot be copied (no-cloning
theorem)
5. It can be erased. It cannot be erased.
Bloch Sphere Representation
The Bloch sphere is a geometrical representation of all possible single-qubit states. It is a
sphere of unit radius, and the state of a qubit can be represented by a vector in this sphere. |0>
is at the north pole, |1> is at the south pole, as shown in the Figure.

Using the spherical coordinate system, an arbitrary position of the state vector of a qubit can
be written in terms of the angles θ (elevation, the state vector makes from z-axis) and ϕ
(azimuth, the angle of projection of the state vector in the x-y plane from the x-axis) it makes
in the Bloch sphere as:

𝜃
𝜃 𝜃 cos( )
|𝜓 > = cos |0 > + 𝑒 sin |1 > = 2
2 2 𝜃
𝑒 sin( )
2
Note:
 For φ = 0 and 𝜃 = 0, the state |𝜓 >corresponds to |0> and is along z-axis.
 For φ = 0 and 𝜃 = 180o the state |𝜓 >corresponds to |1> and is along -z-axis.
 When 𝜃 = 90o, |𝜓 > is in the x-y plane.
For φ = 90o, |𝜓 > = ( |0⟩ + 𝑖|1⟩ ), is a superposition state along +y-axis.
√
For φ = -90o, |𝜓 > = ( |0⟩ − 𝑖|1⟩ ), is a superposition state along -y-axis.
√
For φ = 0o, |𝜓 > = ( |0⟩ + |1⟩ ), is a superposition state along the +x-axis.
√
For φ = 180o, |𝜓 > = ( |0⟩ − |1⟩ ), is a superposition state along the -x-axis.
√
For a classical computer, the two logical states 0 and 1 are represented by the poles of a sphere.

In contrast, the state of a qubit can be represented by any point on the sphere. Since there are
infinite points on the sphere, a qubit, in principle, has more capacity to store information
compared to a classical bit.

Note: The Bloch sphere represents the state of only one qubit. There is no generalization of the
Bloch sphere for multiple qubits.

Single particle quantum interference

A laser that emits one photon at a time is used in the experimental setup (a). This can be
accomplished by employing a set of attenuators, which can filter out laser light and ensure that
only one photon emerges at a time. This photon is then split by a beam splitter. The beam
splitter reflects half of the light that strikes it and allows the other half to pass through. Photon
detectors A and B detect the photon with equal probabilities. Hence it can be concluded that
during any one run the photon has traveled one of the paths since it cannot be split into two.
However, this assumption is not true.

Detector A

V
Single Photon
H Detector B
(a)
Beam splitter

Now experimental set up is changed as shown in (b). A single photon may travel horizontally,
gets deflected by a mirror, and reaches the detector. Another possibility is that it passes
vertically, gets deflected by a mirror, and reaches the detector. Hence if the photon really takes
a single path through the apparatus, both detectors would detect it with equal probabilities.
However, this does not happen. The photon always strikes detector A and never detector B. If
we change the path length by introducing a glass plate in one of the paths (say vertical one),
the photon is detected by detector B and never by detector A.
It means that the photon was in a superposition state, and it travelled through both paths
simultaneously. At the second beam splitter, both the components interfered, constructively or
destructively, and gets detected by one of the detectors.

Detector
Mirror B
Beam
splitter

One photon at a time

Mirror
Beam splitter
(b)

Differences between classical computing and quantum computing

Classical Computing Quantum Computing

Conventional computing is based on the Quantum computing is based on the

classical phenomenon of electrical circuits phenomenon of Quantum Mechanics,
being in a single state at a given time, such as superposition and entanglement,
either on or off. the phenomenon where it is possible to be
in more than one state at a time.

Information storage and manipulation are Information storage and manipulation are
based on “bit”, which is based on voltage based on Quantum Bit or “qubit”, which
or charge; low is 0 and high is 1. is based on the spin of an electron or
polarization of a single photon.

The circuit behaviour is governed by The circuit behaviour is governed by

classical physics. quantum mechanics.

Conventional computing uses binary Quantum computing uses Qubits i.e. |0>,
codes i.e. bits 0 or 1 to represent |1> and the superposition state of both |0>
information. and |1> to represent information.

CMOS transistors are the basic building Superconducting Quantum Interference

blocks of conventional computers. Devices (SQUID) or Quantum Transistors
 are the basic building blocks of quantum
computers.

In conventional computers, data In quantum computers, data processing is

processing is done in the Central done in a Quantum Processing Unit or
Processing Unit or CPU, which consists QPU, which consists of several
of an Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), interconnected qubits.
processor registers and a control unit.

Comparison of classical and quantum information

 Information, either classical or quantum, is physical.
 It is transmitted by physical means.
 It is stored in physical system.
Quantum information Classical information
It is encoded to some property of a It is encoded to some property of a
quantum system like the polarization of physical system obeying the laws of
a photon or spin of an electron. classical physics.
It is processed using quantum gates. It is processed using classical gates.
The fundamental unit of information is a The fundamental unit of information is a
qubit. bit.
It is difficult to store, transmit and It is easy to store, transmit and process.
process.
There is no way to copy unknown It is easy to make copies of classical
information. information.
In general, the measurement of It can be measured without disturbing it.
information destroys it.

The framework of quantum mechanics for quantum computing:

Wave function in Dirac notation:
A wave function (say 𝜓) represents the physical state of a system.
According to Paul Dirac, the state of a system is described by a vector, called a state vector, in
Hilbert space ℋ. Depending on the degree of freedom (i.e. the type of state) of the system
being considered, ℋ may have infinite-dimensional.

[Hilbert space ℋ: It is a complex vector space. It has all the properties of linear vector space
like vector addition and scalar multiplication. In addition, it satisfies inner product operation.

An inner product is a generalization of the dot product It is a method of multiplying vectors

together in a vector space, with the result being a scalar.]
If 𝜓 is a wavefunction, then in Dirac notation 𝜓 is represented as | 𝜓 >, which is called a ket
vector.

Example: Suppose 𝜓 = 𝐴 𝑒

Dirac notation | 𝜓 > = 𝐴 𝑒

Note: Only the notation of 𝜓 is changed. The form of the wave function remains unchanged.
If 𝜓* is the complex conjugate of 𝜓, then 𝜓* is represented as < 𝜓|, which is called a bra
vector
Hence,
< 𝜓| = 𝐴∗ 𝑒
Basis: In quantum mechanics, the “basis vectors” can be thought of as a set of mutually
perpendicular vectors, one for each “dimension” of the space in which the state vector is
expressed. The magnitude of a basis vector is one. There is a one-to-one correspondence
between basis vectors and dimensions of the space.

Matrix form of a wavefunction:

Consider a discrete and complete basis that is made up of an infinite set of kets | 𝜙 >
, |𝜙 >, | 𝜙 > ⋯ etc.
The state vector |𝜓 > can be written as a linear combination of kets | 𝜙 > , |𝜙 >, | 𝜙 >
⋯ etc as follows:
|𝜓 > = 𝑎 | 𝜙 > + 𝑎 |𝜙 > +𝑎 | 𝜙 > + ⋯ + 𝑎 | 𝜙 > = ∑ 𝑎 |𝜙 >
Where the coefficients a1, a2, a3…. an, represent the projection of |𝜓 > onto | 𝜙 > . 𝑎 is
the component of |𝜓 > along the vector | 𝜙 > .
Hence, |𝜓 > can be represented as a column vector (column matrix) given by
< 𝜙 |𝜓 > 𝑎
⎡ ⎤ ⎡𝑎 ⎤
< 𝜙 |𝜓 > ⎢𝑎 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
|𝜓 > → ⎢< 𝜙 |𝜓 >⎥ = ⎢ . ⎥
..
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ . ⎥
⎣< 𝜙 |𝜓 >⎦ ⎣𝑎 ⎦

[A column matrix is a matrix having all its elements in a single column. The elements are
arranged in a vertical manner. The order of a column matrix having n elements is n x 1]

The bra vector < 𝜓| can be represented by a row vector (row matrix) :

< 𝜓| → [ < 𝜓|𝜙 > < 𝜓|𝜙 > < 𝜓|𝜙 > …….. < 𝜓|𝜙 > ]
= [ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎∗ … … . . 𝑎 ∗ ]
[A row matrix is a matrix having all its elements in a single row. The elements are arranged
in a horizontal manner. The order of a row matrix having n elements is 1 x n]

Remark:
A ket |𝜓 > is normalized if < 𝜓|𝜓 > = ∑ |𝑎 | = 1
If |𝜓 > is not normalized, we can multiply it by a constant ‘a’ so that
< 𝑎 𝜓|𝑎 𝜓 > = |a|2 < 𝜓|𝜓 > =1

Hence, the normalization constant ‘a’ = 1/ < 𝜓|𝜓 >

Inner product:
If 𝜓 = 𝜓(𝑥) and 𝜙 = 𝜙(𝑥) are two wavefunctions, then their inner product can be defined
as

(𝜓, 𝜙) = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑥 ) 𝜙(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

In Dirac notation (𝜓, 𝜙) is written as < 𝜓|𝜙 >.

Since the inner product (scalar product) is a complex number in quantum mechanics,
< 𝜓|𝜙 > = < 𝜙|𝜓 >*
This property can be demonstrated as follows:
< 𝜙|𝜓 >* = ( ∫ 𝜙 ∗ (𝑥 )𝜓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 )* = ∫ 𝜓 ∗ (𝑥 ) 𝜙 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = < 𝜓|𝜙 >
For any state vector |𝜓 >, < 𝜓|𝜓 > is real and positive.
If the state | 𝜓 > is normalized, < 𝜓|𝜓 > = 1
Therefore, < 𝜓|𝜓 > = 0 only if | 𝜓 > = 0 .
Matrix form of inner product:
Let |𝜓 > = 𝑎 | 𝜙 > + 𝑎 |𝜙 > +𝑎 | 𝜙 > + ⋯ + 𝑎 | 𝜙 >
𝑎
⎡𝑎 ⎤
⎢𝑎 ⎥
=⎢ . ⎥
⎢ . ⎥
⎣𝑎 ⎦
|Φ > = 𝑏 | 𝜙 > + 𝑏 |𝜙 > +𝑏 | 𝜙 > + ⋯ + 𝑏 | 𝜙 >
𝑏
⎡ ⎤
𝑏
⎢ ⎥
= ⎢ 𝑏. ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ . ⎥
⎣𝑏 ⎦
 𝑏
⎡ ⎤
𝑏
⎢ ⎥
< 𝜓|𝜙 > = [ 𝑎∗ 𝑎∗ 𝑎∗ … … . . 𝑎∗ ] ⎢𝑏. ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ . ⎥
⎣𝑏 ⎦
𝑎∗ 𝑏
⎡ ∗ ⎤
⎢ 𝑎∗ 𝑏 ⎥
= ⎢ 𝑎 .𝑏 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ . ⎥
⎣𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ⎦
Condition for orthogonality:
Two ket vectors | 𝜓 > and | 𝜙 >, are said to be orthogonal if their inner product is zero.
i.e. < 𝜓|𝜙 > = 0
Condition for orthonormality:
Two ket vectors | 𝜓 > and | 𝜙 >, are said to be orthonormal if they are orthogonal and if
each of them is normalized.
i.e. < 𝜓|𝜙 > = 0, < 𝜓|𝜓 > = 1, < 𝜙|𝜙 > = 1
Operator:
An operator 𝐴 is a mathematical rule that when applied to a ket vector | 𝜓 > transforms it to
another ket vector |𝜙 > of the same space and when it acts on a bra vector < 𝜓| transforms
it to another bra vector < 𝜙|.
i.e. 𝐴 | 𝜓 > = |𝜙 > , 𝐴 < 𝜓| = < 𝜙|
If 𝐴 | 𝜓 > = a | 𝜓 >
With ‘a’ real, then | 𝜓 > is said to be an eigenfunction of 𝐴 with eigenvalue ‘a’.
Linear operators can be represented as square matrices in quantum mechanics.
Unity operator ( 𝑰 ) : It leaves any ket vector unchanged.
i.e. 𝐼 | 𝜓 > = |𝜓 >
Identity matrix(I):
An identity matrix is a square matrix in which all the elements of principal diagonals are one,
and all other elements are zeros. If any matrix is multiplied by the identity matrix, the result
will be given a matrix.
Example:
1 0
𝐼≡
0 1
Hermitian matrix:
A Hermitian matrix is a square matrix composed of complex numbers, and it is equal to its
conjugate transpose.
1 𝑖
Example: M =
−𝑖 𝑖
1 𝑖
The conjugate transpose of the matrix is 𝑀 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 =
−𝑖 1
Here, M = 𝑀
Hence M is a Hermitian matrix.
Unitary matrix:
Unitary Matrix is a square matrix of complex numbers. The product of the conjugate
transpose of a unitary matrix, with the unitary matrix itself, gives an identity matrix.
If 𝑈. 𝑈 = I
U is a unitary matrix.
Pauli matrices:
The Pauli matrices are a set of four 2x2 complex matrices. They are used to represent spin
angular momentum. These matrices are Hermitian and Unitary.
These matrices are very powerful in quantum computing as they can be used to represent
quantum logic gates. They can set the rotational parameters for qubits. These matrices go by a
variety of notations.
0 1 0 −𝑖
𝜎 ≡𝜎 ≡𝑋≡ 𝜎 ≡𝜎 ≡𝑌≡
1 0 𝑖 0
1 0
𝜎 ≡𝜎 ≡𝑍≡
0 −1

Quantum Entanglement

Quantum entanglement is a fundamental phenomenon in quantum physics in which two

particles become strongly correlated. Measuring the state of one particle immediately
determines the state of the other, irrespective of the distance between them.

The power of quantum computing comes from superposition, entanglement, and quantum
parallelism. Unlike classical bits, which are independent, qubits can be entangled.
This means measuring or changing one qubit affects the other. This enables complex
computations that are impossible for classical computers. In classical computing, changing one
bit does not affect other bits.
Non-Entangled Systems
The systems in which, measuring or changing the state of one particle has no effect on the other
are called non-entangled systems.
Example: Flipping two independent coins. If two coins are flipped independently, the result
of the first coin gives no information about the second.
If the first coin lands on heads, it gives no information about the second coin. The outcomes
are independent. In quantum terms, the probability of a combined state ∣HT⟩ is the product of
the individual probabilities:

Prob(∣HT⟩)=Prob(∣H⟩)×Prob(∣T⟩) = . =

Such states are called product states because they can be written as a product of single-qubit
states.

Entangled Systems
The systems in which, measuring the state of one qubit determines the other qubit are called
entangled systems.
Example:
Consider the state ∣ψ⟩= (∣00⟩+∣11⟩)
√

This is an entangled state. Before any measurement, the probabilities of finding it in ∣0⟩ or ∣1⟩

are each or 50%. However, once the first qubit is measured, the second qubit is no longer

uncertain:

 If the first qubit is measured as ∣0⟩, then the second qubit must also be ∣0⟩.
 If the first qubit is measured as ∣1⟩, then the second qubit must also be ∣1⟩.

The same applies if the measurement begins with the second qubit. In other words, measuring
one qubit immediately determines the state of the other.

Application of Quantum Entanglement in Teleportation

Quantum teleportation is a process by which an unknown quantum state is transferred from

one location to another without physically sending the particle itself. This is achieved using a
pre-shared entangled pair of qubits and classical communication.
  Alice and Bob share an entangled pair of qubits and are spatially separated.
1
|Φ > = (|00 > +|11 >)
√2
Alice holds qubit A
Bob holds qubit B
 Alice possesses a qubit in an unknown state |𝜓⟩ = 𝛼 |1⟩ + 𝛽 |0⟩ that she wants to
transfer to Bob.
(Alice cannot measure the unknown state directly, as measurement collapses it to ∣0⟩ or
∣1⟩, destroying the quantum information.)
 Alice performs a joint quantum measurement on her two qubits (the unknown state and
her half of the entangled pair).
|𝜓 > =|ψ > ⨂ |Φ >
= ( 𝛼 |1⟩ + 𝛽 |0⟩) ⨂ (|00 > +|11 >)
√

 She then sends the measurement results to Bob using classical communication.
 Using this information, Bob applies appropriate quantum operations to his qubit.
As a result, Bob’s qubit becomes identical to the original unknown state
|𝜓 > = 𝛼 |1⟩ + 𝛽 |0⟩ , while the state at Alice’s end is destroyed.
 Thus, the quantum information is successfully transferred from Alice to Bob.
In this way, the quantum information is teleported via entanglement, even though the particle
itself never moves.
Quantum teleportation has been shown experimentally (current record is 1,400 km).
Quantum Gates:
Classical computer circuits consist of wires and logic gates. The wires carry information around
the circuit, while the logic gates manipulate information, converting it from one to another.
Classical computers manipulate bits using classical logic gates, such as OR, AND, NOT,
NAND, etc.

Similarly, quantum computers manipulate qubits using quantum gates which are usually
represented as unitary matrices. A gate which acts on k qubits is represented by a 2k X 2k
unitary matrix. The number of qubits in the input and output of the gate has to be equal. The
action of the quantum gate is found by multiplying the matrix representing the gate with the
vector which represents the quantum state.
Single qubit gates:

Pauli-X gate:
In classical computers, the NOT gate takes one input and reverses its value. For example, it
changes the 0 bit to a 1 bit or changes a 1 bit to a 0 bit. It is like a light switch flipping a light
from ON to OFF, or from OFF to ON.
Pauli-X gate is a quantum analogue of the classical NOT gate.

 The application of this gate rotates the qubit by 180o along the x-axis. It transforms
|0⟩ to |1⟩ and vice versa.
 The matrix form of X-gate is obtained as follows
X = |0 > < 1| + |1 > < 0|
1
= [0 1] + 0 [1 0]
0 1
0 1 0 0
= +
0 0 1 0
0 1
=
1 0
 Circuit representation

 Dirac notation
X |0⟩ = |1⟩
X |1⟩ = |0⟩
 When the qubit is in a superposition state |𝜓⟩ = 𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ , then
X |𝜓⟩ = 𝛼 |1⟩ + 𝛽 |0⟩
𝛼
 In matrix form |𝜓⟩ = 𝛽

Then the action of X gate is

𝛼 𝛽
X 𝛽 = 𝛼
The truth table of X gates:
X -gate
Input Output
|0⟩ |1⟩
|1⟩ |0⟩
𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩ 𝛼|1⟩ + 𝛽|0⟩
Pauli -Y gate:
 The application of this gate rotates the qubit by 180o along the y-axis.
 It transforms |0⟩ to 𝑖|1⟩ and |1⟩ to −𝑖 |0⟩.
 Matrix form of Y-gate
0 −𝑖
Y=
𝑖 0

 Circuit representation

 Dirac notation
Y |0⟩ = 𝑖 |1⟩
Y |1⟩ = −𝑖 |0⟩

 The truth table of Y- gate:

Y -gate
Input Output
|0⟩ 𝑖|1⟩
|1⟩ −𝑖|0⟩
𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩ 𝑖𝛼|1⟩−𝑖𝛽|0⟩

Pauli - Z gate:
 The application of this gate rotates the qubit by 180o along the z-axis.
 It leaves |0⟩ unchanged and flips the sign of |1⟩ to - |1⟩.
 Matrix for of Z-gate
1 0
Z =
0 −1
 Circuit representation

 Dirac notation
Z |0⟩ = |0⟩ Z |1⟩ = −|1⟩
 The truth table of Z-gate:

Z-gate
Input Output
|0⟩ |0⟩
|1⟩ -|1⟩
𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩ 𝛼|0⟩ − 𝛽|1⟩
Hadamard gate:
 It is one of the most important gates for quantum computing. If the qubit starts in a
definite |0⟩ or |1⟩ state, the Hadamard gate puts each into a superposition of |0⟩ and
|1⟩ states.
1 1
 Matrix representation H =
√ 1 −1
 Circuit representation

 Dirac notation

H |0⟩ = ( |0⟩ + |1⟩ )

√

H |1⟩ = ( |0⟩ − |1⟩ )

√

 The truth table of Hadamard gate:

Input Output

|0⟩ ( |0⟩ + |1⟩ )

√

|1⟩ ( |0⟩ − |1⟩ )

√

𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩ [𝛼( |0⟩ + |1⟩ ) + 𝛽( |0⟩ − |1⟩ )]/√2

Phase (S and T) gates:

The phase gate is a parameterized quantum gate, meaning it requires a numerical parameter ϕ
to specify its operation. This gate performs a rotation of the qubit state by an angle ϕ about the
z-axis of the Bloch sphere.
1 0
 Matrix representation: Phase gate =
0 𝑒
 Phase gates can be S- or T- gates.
S- gate:

 It is a phase gate with 𝜙 =

 𝜙= ⟹ 𝑒 = 𝑒 = cos + 𝑖 sin = 0 + 𝑖 (1) = 𝑖
1 0
 Matrix representation S =
0 𝑖
 Dirac notation
S |0⟩ = |0⟩
S |1⟩ = 𝑖|1⟩
 When the qubit is in a superposition state |𝜓⟩ = 𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ , then
 S |𝜓⟩ = 𝛼 |1⟩ + 𝑖 𝛽 |0⟩

 The truth table is as follows

Input Output
|0⟩ |0⟩
|1⟩ i|1⟩
𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩ 𝛼|0⟩ + i β|1⟩

T – gate:
 It is a phase gate with 𝜙 =
 𝜙= ⟹ 𝑒 = 𝑒
= cos + 𝑖 sin =
√
1 0
 Matrix representation: T= 0
√
T |0⟩ = |0⟩
T |1⟩ = |1⟩
√
 When the qubit is in a superposition state |𝜓⟩ = 𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ , then
S |𝜓⟩ = 𝛼 |1⟩ + 𝛽 |0⟩
√

 The truth table is as follows

Input Output
|0⟩ |0⟩
|1⟩ eiπ/4|1>
𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩ 𝛼|0⟩ + eiπ/4 β|1⟩

Multiple qubit gates:

CNOT gate:
 It is a Controlled NOT (CNOT) gate.
 It acts on two qubits.
 It performs the NOT operation on the target qubit only when the control qubit is |1>
otherwise leaves it unchanged.
  Matrix representation

 Dirac notation
CNOT |00⟩ = |00⟩ ; CNOT |01⟩ = |01⟩
CNOT |10⟩ = |11⟩ ; CNOT |11⟩ = |10⟩

 The Truth Table of CNOT gate:

Input Output
|00⟩ |00⟩
|01⟩ |01⟩
|10⟩ |11⟩
|11⟩ |10⟩

Quantum circuits:
A quantum circuit is required to carry out computations on a quantum computer. It consists of
a series of operations referred to as quantum gates. These quantum gates, which are assigned
to certain qubits, change the quantum states of some of the qubits, causing those qubits to
perform the calculations required to solve a problem.
(1)
|0>

|0> X

CNOT gate leaves it unchanged as the control qubit (dark circle) is |0>.
In the second step, X-gate flips the second qubit to |1>.
Hence the output is |01>.
(2)

The states change from the start to the end after every gate:

The Hadamard gate changes |0> to ( |0⟩ + |1⟩ ).

√

Therefore,

|00>→ (|0>+|1>) |0> → (|00>+|10>).

√ √

In the last step, the first qubit is the control qubit

Hence , CNOT changes (|00>+|10>) to (|00>+|11>).

√ √

The final output is (|00>+|11>).

√

Accounting for the extra-ordinary capability of quantum computing

The main advantage that a quantum computer has over a classical computer is parallelism. A
quantum computer can perform operations on all of the states simultaneously because qubits
can be in a superposition of states.

Let us consider two systems.

System 1: With 2 bits

This can represent 4 different values.
Possible states are [00, 01, 10, 11]
particular state-value = 2⁰ bit 0 + 2¹ bit 1
i.e. particular state-value ∈ {0,1,2,3}, one of the 4 possible values
System 2: With 2 qubits
This can represent infinite different values (vector space) formed from 4 different basis
state, 00 ≡|00⟩, 01 ≡ |01⟩, 10 ≡ |10⟩, 11 ≡|11⟩
Possible states: Infinite
particular state-value: α |00⟩ + β |01⟩ + γ |10⟩ + δ |11⟩
such that |α|²+|β|² +|γ|² +|δ|² = 1
Hence, an n-bit classical system can be in one of the 2n possible states at a time, and all it
needs is the value of these n-bits to be fully recognized.
Whereas an n-qubit system can be in a superposition of all of those states 2n states at a given
time and it needs the value of coefficients of all of the 2n-1 states (considering that summation
is 1) basis to be fully recognized.
Consequently, one can compute with 2n values in a single step on a quantum computer. This
enormous parallelism is one reason why quantum computers are so powerful