Sex hormones

Asexual & sexual reproduction

Embryo development
Fertilization

Reproductive organs
2
 Pairing Up for Sexual Reproduction

• Animal reproduction takes many forms

• A population outlives its member only by reproduction, the

generation of new individuals from existing ones

3
 Interconnection with Other Chapters
Meiosis and Sexual
Life Cycles Population Ecology

Animal Development Animal Behavior

Mendel and the

Gene Idea

4
 Both asexual and sexual
reproduction occur in the
animal kingdom

• Sexual reproduction is the creation of an offspring by

fusion of a male gamete (sperm) and female gamete
(egg) to form a zygote
• Asexual reproduction is creation of offspring without
the fusion of egg and sperm

5
 Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction
分裂生殖 (Fission)
• Many invertebrates reproduce
asexually by fission, separation of a
parent into two or more individuals
of about the same size

6
• In budding (出芽生殖), new individuals arise from
outgrowths of existing ones

• Fission (分裂生殖), an individual simply splits into two or

more descendants.

• Fragmentation (裂片生殖) is breaking of the body into

pieces, some or all of which develop into adults. It must be
accompanied by regeneration, regrowth of lost body parts

• Parthenogenesis (孤雌生殖) is the development of a new

individual from an unfertilized egg
7
 Examples of Asexual Reproduction
Fission (分裂生殖) Fragmentation (裂片生殖)

變形蟲 Amoeba 渦蟲 Planarian

Fission (分裂生殖) Fragmentation (裂片生殖)

水螅 Hydra

8
草履蟲 Paramecium 海葵 Anemone
9
 Sexual Reproduction:
An Evolutionary Enigma

• Sexual females have half as many daughters as

asexual females; this is the “twofold cost” of
sexual reproduction

• Despite this, almost all eukaryotic species

reproduce sexually

10
11
Figure 46.3-1

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

Female Generation 1
Female

12
Figure 46.3-2

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

Female Generation 1
Female

Generation 2
Male

13
Figure 46.3-3

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

Female Generation 1
Female

Generation 2
Male

Generation 3

14
Figure 46.3-4

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

Female Generation 1
Female

Generation 2
Male

Generation 3

Generation 4

15
Prophase I Nonsister chromatids
of meiosis held together
during synapsis
Pair of homologs
• Sexual reproduction results in genetic
Figure 13.11-5
Chiasma recombination, which provides
potential advantages
Centromere • An increase in variation in offspring,
TEM providing an increase in the
Anaphase I reproductive success of parents in
changing environments
• An increase in the rate of adaptation
Anaphase II
• A shuffling of genes and the
elimination of harmful genes from a
Daughter population
cells
16
Recombinant chromosomes
 Reproductive Cycles
• Ovulation is the release of mature eggs at the
midpoint of a female cycle
• Most animals exhibit reproductive cycles related to
changing seasons
• Reproductive cycles are controlled by hormones and
environmental cues
• Because seasonal temperature is often an important
cue in reproduction, climate change can decrease
reproductive success 17
 Figure 46.5

• Some organisms can reproduce sexually

or asexually, depending on conditions

• Several genera of fishes, amphibians, and

(a) A. uniparens females
lizards reproduce only by a complex form

Ovary
size
of parthenogenesis that involves the
Ovulation Ovulation
doubling of chromosomes after meiosis

Hormone
Progesterone
Estradiol

level
• Asexual whiptail lizards are descended
Time
from a sexual species, and females still

Behavior
exhibit mating behaviors Female Male- Female
like
Male-
like

(b) The sexual behavior of A. uniparens is 18

correlated with the cycle of ovulation.
Variation in Patterns of Sexual Reproduction

• For many animals, finding a partner for sexual

reproduction may be challenging
• One solution is hermaphroditism (雌雄同體), in
which each individual has male and female
reproductive systems
• Two hermaphrodites can mate, and some
hermaphrodites can self-fertilize
19
 • Individuals of some species undergo sex reversals (續發性
雌雄同體)

• Some species exhibit male to female reversal (雄性先熟)(for

example, certain oysters), while others exhibit female to
male reversal (雌性先熟) (for example, a coral reef fish)

Oyster Coral reef fish

20
♂ ♀ ♀ ♂
 Fertilization depends on
mechanisms that bring
together sperm and eggs of
the same species

• The mechanisms of fertilization, the union of

egg and sperm, play an important part in
sexual reproduction

21
• In external fertilization, eggs shed by the
Figure 46.6
female are fertilized by sperm in the external
environment

• In internal fertilization, sperm are deposited in

or near the female reproductive tract, and
fertilization occurs within the tract

• Internal fertilization requires behavioral

interactions and compatible copulatory
organs

• All fertilization requires critical timing, often

mediated by environmental cues, pheromones,
and/or courtship behavior
22
 Ensuring the Survival of Offspring

• Internal fertilization is typically associated with

production of fewer gametes but the survival of
a higher fraction of zygotes

• Internal fertilization is also often associated with

mechanisms to provide protection of embryos
and parental care of young

23
• The embryos of some terrestrial
animals develop in eggs with
calcium- and protein-containing
shells and several internal
membranes

• Some other animals retain the

embryo, which develops inside the
female

24
 • In many animals, parental care
helps ensure survival of offspring
Figure 46.4

25
 Gamete Production and Delivery
• To reproduce sexually, animals must produce gametes

• In most species individuals have gonads, organs that

produce gametes

• Some simple systems do not have gonads, but gametes

form from undifferentiated tissue

• More elaborate systems include sets of accessory tubes

and glands that carry, nourish, and protect gametes
and developing embryos 26
• Most insects have separate sexes with complex reproductive systems

• In many insects, the female has a spermatheca (受精囊) in which sperm

is stored during copulation

Figure 46.8

Accessory
gland Testis Ovary

Oviduct
Vas Spermatheca
deferens
Ejaculatory
duct Seminal Uterus
vesicle Accessory
Penis and gland Vulva
claspers

(a) Male fruit fly (b) Female fruit fly 27

• A cloaca (泄殖腔) is a common opening
between the external environment and
the digestive, excretory, and
reproductive systems

• A cloaca is common in nonmammalian

vertebrates; mammals usually have a
separate opening to the digestive tract

28
• Monogamy is relatively rare among animals

• Males and/or females of some species have

evolved mechanisms to decrease the chance of
their mate mating with another individual

• Females can sometimes influence the relative

reproductive success of their mates

29
 Reproductive organs
produce and transport
gametes

• The following section focuses on the human

reproductive system

30
 Female Reproductive Anatomy

• The female external reproductive structures include

the clitoris (陰蒂) and two sets of labia (陰唇)

• The internal organs are a pair of gonads and a

system of ducts and chambers that carry gametes
and house the embryo and fetus

31
Figure 46.10

Oviduct
Ovary
Uterus
(Urinary bladder)
(Pubic bone)
(Rectum) Urethra
Cervix
Body
Vagina
Glans Clitoris
Prepuce
Major vestibular Labia minora
(Bartholin’s) gland
Labia majora
Vaginal opening
Oviduct
Ovaries

Follicles

Corpus luteum
Uterus Uterine wall
Endometrium
Cervix
32
Vagina
33
34
 Ovaries

• The female gonads, the ovaries, lie in the abdominal

cavity
• Each ovary contains many follicles (濾泡), which
consist of a partially developed egg, called an
oocyte (卵母細胞), surrounded by support cells
• Once a month, an oocyte develops into an ovum
(egg) by the process of oogenesis (卵子生成)

35
• Ovulation expels an egg cell from the follicle, the cells
of which produce estradiol prior to ovulation
• The remaining follicular tissue grows within the ovary,
forming a mass called the corpus luteum (黃體)
• The corpus luteum secretes estradiol (雌激素; 動情素)
and progesterone (孕酮; 黃體素) that helps to
maintain pregnancy
• If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum
degenerates
36
 Oviducts and Uterus

• The egg cell travels from the ovary to the uterus via
an oviduct (輸卵管), or fallopian tube
• Cilia in the oviduct convey the egg to the uterus (子
宮), also called the womb
• The uterus lining, the endometrium (子宮內膜), has
many blood vessels
• The uterus narrows at the cervix (子宮頸), then
opens into the vagina (陰道)
37
 Vagina and Vulva

• The vagina is a thin-walled chamber that is the

repository for sperm during copulation and serves
as the birth canal

• The vagina opens to the outside at the vulva (陰戶),

which consists of the labia majora (大陰唇), labia
minora (小陰唇), hymen (處女膜), and clitoris (陰蒂)

38
• The clitoris has a head called a glans (陰蒂頭) covered by the prepuce (陰蒂包皮)

• The vagina, labia minora, and clitoris are rich with blood vessels; the clitoris also
has many nerve endings

39
 Mammary Glands

• The mammary glands are not

part of the reproductive system
but are important to
mammalian reproduction

• Within the glands, small sacs of

epithelial tissue secrete milk

40
 Male Reproductive Anatomy

• The male’s external reproductive organs are the

scrotum (陰囊) and penis (陰莖)

• Internal organs are the gonads, which produce

sperm and hormones, and accessory glands

41
Figure 46.11

Seminal
vesicle
(behind (Urinary bladder)
bladder)
Prostate gland
Bulbourethral gland
Urethra
Erectile tissue of penis
Scrotum Vas deferens
Epididymis
Testis

(Urinary bladder)

Seminal vesicle (Urinary duct)

(Rectum) (Pubic bone)
Vas deferens
Erectile
Ejaculatory duct tissue
Prostate gland Urethra
Penis
Bulbourethral gland Vas deferens
Glans
Epididymis
Testis
Prepuce 42
Scrotum
43
44
 Testes

• The male gonads, or testes (睪丸), consist of highly

coiled tubes surrounded by connective tissue

• Sperm form in these seminiferous tubules (生精小管)

• Leydig cells (萊迪氏細胞) produce hormones and are

scattered between the tubules

45
• Production of normal sperm cannot occur at the
body temperatures of most mammals

• The testes of many mammals are held outside the

abdominal cavity in the scrotum, where the
temperature is lower than in the abdominal cavity

46
 Ducts

• From the seminiferous tubules of a testis, sperm

pass into the coiled tubules of the epididymis (副睪)

• During ejaculation (射精), sperm are propelled

through the muscular vas deferens (輸精管) and the
ejaculatory duct (射精管), and then exit the penis
through the urethra (尿道)

47
 Accessory Glands

• Semen (精液) is composed of sperm plus secretions from three sets

of accessory glands

• The two seminal vesicles (儲精囊) contribute about 60% of the total
volume of semen

• The prostate gland (攝護腺/前列腺) secretes its products directly into

the urethra through several small ducts

• The bulbourethral glands (尿道球腺) secrete a clear mucus before

ejaculation that neutralizes acidic urine remaining in the urethra
48
 Penis

• The human penis is composed of three cylinders of

spongy erectile tissue

• During sexual arousal, the erectile tissue fills with

blood from the arteries, causing an erection

• The head of the penis has a thinner skin covering

than the shaft and is more sensitive to stimulation

49
 Gametogenesis

• Gametogenesis (配子形成), the production of

gametes, differs in male and female, reflecting the
distinct structure and function of their gametes

• Sperm are small and motile and must pass from

male to female

• Eggs are larger and carry out their function within

the female
50
• Spermatogenesis (精子形成), the development of
sperm, is continuous and prolific (millions of sperm
are produced per day; each sperm takes about 7
weeks to develop)
• Oogenesis (卵子形成), the development of a mature
egg, is a prolonged process
• Immature eggs form in the female embryo but do
not complete their development until years or
decades later
51
• Spermatogenesis differs from oogenesis in three
ways
• All four products of meiosis develop into sperm
while only one of the four becomes an egg
• Spermatogenesis occurs throughout
adolescence and adulthood
• Sperm are produced continuously without the
prolonged interruptions in oogenesis
52
Figure 46.12a
Epididymis

♂
Seminiferous tubule

Testis
Primordial germ cell in embryo
Cross section of
seminiferous tubule Mitotic divisions

Spermatogonial 2n
stem cell
Mitotic divisions
Sertoli cell
nucleus
Spermatogonium 2n

Mitotic divisions

Primary spermatocyte 2n

Meiosis I

Secondary spermatocyte n n

Meiosis II
Lumen of
seminiferous tubule
Spermatids Early
Neck spermatid n n n n
(two stages)
Tail Midpiece Head Differentiation
Plasma (Sertoli cells
membrane provide nutrients)
Sperm cell n n n n
Acrosome
Nucleus 53
Mitochondria
Figure 46.UN02

54
Figure 46.12b
♀ Ovary
Primary
oocyte
within
follicle

Growing
Primordial germ cell In embryo follicle
Mitotic divisions

2n Oogonium

Mitotic divisions

Primary oocyte Mature follicle

2n (present at birth), arrested
in prophase of meiosis I
Ruptured
Completion of meiosis I follicle
First and onset of meiosis II
polar n
n Secondary oocyte,
body
arrested at metaphase of Ovulated
meiosis II secondary
oocyte
Ovulation, sperm entry

Completion of meiosis II
Second Corpus luteum
polar n
body
Fertilized egg
n
Degenerating
55
corpus luteum
Figure 46.UN01
Human gametogenesis
♂ Spermatogenesis Oogenesis ♀

2n
Primary Primary
2n
spermatocyte oocyte

n Polar body
Secondary Secondary
n n n
spermatocytes oocyte

n n n n Spermatids

n n n n
Sperm

n Polar body

n Fertilized egg 56
 The interplay of tropic and
sex hormones regulates
mammalian reproduction

• Sex hormones serve many functions in

addition to gamete production, including
sexual behavior and the development of
primary and secondary sex characteristics

57
• Human reproduction is coordinated by
hormones from the hypothalamus (下視丘),
anterior pituitary (腦下垂體前葉), and gonads

• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)(生

殖腺刺激素) is secreted by the hypothalamus
and directs the release of follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH)(濾泡細胞刺激素) and
luteinizing hormone (LH)(黃體生成素) from
the anterior pituitary

• FSH and LH regulate processes in the gonads

and the production of sex hormones

58
59
 Hormonal Control of the
Female Reproductive Cycles

• In females, the secretion of hormones and the reproductive

events they regulate are cyclic

• Prior to ovulation, the endometrium thickens with blood

vessels in preparation for embryo implantation

• If an embryo does not implant in the endometrium, the

endometrium is shed in a process called menstruation (經期)
60
• Hormones closely link the two cycles of female
reproduction
• Changes in the uterus define the menstrual cycle
(also called the uterine cycle)(月經週期)

• Changes in the ovaries define the ovarian cycle (卵

巢週期)

61
Figure 46.13 (a) Control by hypothalamus
Inhibited by combination of
estradiol and progesterone
Hypothalamus −
Stimulated by high levels
+ of estradiol
1 GnRH

Anterior pituitary Inhibited by low levels of

− estradiol

2 FSH LH

(b) Pituitary gonadotropins 6

in blood

LH

FSH
3 FSH and LH stimulate LH surge triggers
follicle to grow ovulation
(c) Ovarian cycle 7 8

Growing follicle Corpus Degenerating

Maturing luteum corpus luteum
follicle
Follicular phase Ovulation Luteal phase
Estradiol secreted Progesterone and
4 by growing follicle in estradiol secreted
increasing amounts by corpus luteum
(d) Ovarian hormones Peak causes
in blood LH surge
(see 6 )
5

10
Estradiol 9
Progesterone

Estradiol level Progesterone and estra-

very low diol promote thickening
of endometrium

(e) Uterine (menstrual) cycle

Endometrium

62
Menstrual flow phase Proliferative phase Secretory phase
Days

0 5 10 14 15 20 25 28
Figure 46.13a

(a) Control by hypothalamus Inhibited by combination of

− estradiol and progesterone
Hypothalamus
Stimulated by high levels
GnRH + of estradiol
1

Anterior pituitary Inhibited by low levels of

− estradiol

2 FSH LH

63
Figure 46.13b

(b) Pituitary gonadotropins

in blood 6

LH

FSH
3 FSH and LH stimulate LH surge triggers
follicle to grow ovulation
(c) Ovarian cycle 7 8

Growing follicle Corpus Degenerating

Maturing luteum corpus luteum
follicle

Follicular phase Ovulation Luteal phase

Days

0 5 10 14 15 20 25 28 64
Figure 46.13c
Estradiol secreted Progesterone and
4 by growing follicle in estradiol secreted
increasing amounts by corpus luteum
(d) Ovarian hormones Peak causes
in blood LH surge
(see 6 )
5

10
Estradiol 9
Progesterone

Estradiol level Progesterone and estra-

very low diol promote thickening
of endometrium

(e) Uterine (menstrual) cycle

Endometrium

(e)

Menstrual flow phase Proliferative phase Secretory phase

65
Days

0 5 10 14 15 20 25 28
 The Ovarian Cycle

• The sequential release of GnRH then

FSH and LH stimulates follicle growth

• Follicle growth and an increase in the

hormone estradiol characterize the
follicular phase of the ovarian cycle

• The follicular phase ends at ovulation,

and the secondary oocyte is released
• Following ovulation, the follicular
tissue left behind transforms into the
corpus luteum; this is the luteal phase

• The corpus luteum disintegrates, and

ovarian steroid hormones decrease
 The Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle
• Hormones coordinate the uterine cycle with
the ovarian cycle
• Thickening of the endometrium during
the proliferative phase (增生期)
coordinates with the follicular phase
• Secretion of nutrients during the
secretory phase (分泌期) coordinates with
the luteal phase
• Shedding of the endometrium during the
menstrual flow phase (月經期)
coordinates with the growth of new
ovarian follicles
68
69
• A new cycle begins if no embryo
implants in the endometrium

• Cells of the uterine lining can

sometimes migrate to an abnormal, or
ectopic, location

• Swelling of these cells in response to

hormone stimulation results in a
disorder called endometriosis (子宮內
膜異位症)

70
71
 Menopause
• After about 500 cycles, human females undergo
menopause (停經), the cessation of ovulation and
menstruation
• Menopause is very unusual among animals
• Menopause might have evolved to allow a mother
to provide better care for her children and
grandchildren

72
 Menstrual Versus
Estrous Cycles
• Menstrual cycles are
characteristic only of humans
and some other primates
• The endometrium is shed
from the uterus in a bleeding
called menstruation
• Sexual receptivity is not
limited to a time frame

73
• Estrous cycles are
characteristic of most
mammals
• The endometrium is
reabsorbed by the uterus
• Sexual receptivity is
limited to a “heat” period
• The length and frequency
of estrus cycles vary from
species to species

74
 Hormonal Control of the
Male Reproductive System

• FSH promotes the activity of Sertoli cells, which

nourish developing sperm

• LH regulates Leydig cells, which secrete

testosterone and other androgens, which in turn
promote spermatogenesis
75
• Testosterone regulates the
production of GnRH, FSH, and
LH through negative feedback
mechanisms
• Sertoli cells secrete the
hormone inhibin, which reduces
FSH secretion from the anterior
pituitary

76
 Human Sexual Response

• Two reactions predominate in both sexes

• Vasocongestion (血管充血), the filling of tissue with
blood
• Myotonia (肌強直), increased muscle tension

• The sexual response cycle has four phases:

excitement (興奮期), plateau (持續期), orgasm (高潮
期), and resolution (消退期)

• Excitement prepares the penis and vagina for coitus

(sexual intercourse)

77
• Direct stimulation of genitalia maintains the plateau
phase and prepares the vagina for receipt of sperm
• Orgasm is characterized by rhythmic contractions of
reproductive structures
• In males, semen is first released into the urethra
and then ejaculated from the urethra
• In females, the uterus and outer vagina contract

• During the resolution phase, organs return to

their normal state and muscles relax
78
♂ ♀

79
 In placental mammals, an
embryo develops fully
within the mother’s uterus

• An egg develops into an embryo in a series of

predictable events

80
81
• The rise in Ca2+ in the cytosol
increases the rates of cellular
respiration and protein synthesis by
the egg cell
• With these rapid changes in
metabolism, the egg is said to be
activated.
• The proteins and mRNAs needed for
activation are already present in the
egg
• The sperm nucleus merges with the
egg nucleus and cell division begins
82
82
 Conception, Embryonic
Development, and Birth

• Conception (受孕), fertilization of an egg by a

sperm, occurs in the oviduct

• The resulting zygote begins to divide by mitosis

in a process called cleavage (卵裂)

• Division of cells gives rise to a blastocyst (囊胚),

a ball of cells with a central cavity
83
Figure 46.15

3 Cleavage

4 Cleavage
continues
Ovary

2 Fertilization

Uterus 5 Implantation

1 Ovulation

Endometrium
(a) From ovulation to implantation

Endometrium Inner cell

mass
Cavity

Blastocyst Trophoblast
84
(b) Implantation of blastocyst
• After blastocyst formation, the embryo implants into the
endometrium

• The embryo releases human chorionic gonadotropin

(hCG) (人體絨毛性腺刺激素), which prevents menstruation

• Pregnancy (懷孕), or gestation (妊娠), is the condition of

carrying one or more embryos in the uterus

• Duration of pregnancy in other species correlates with

body size and maturity of the young at birth
85
• Pregnancies can terminate spontaneously due to
chromosomal or developmental abnormalities

• An ectopic pregnancy occurs when a fertilized

egg begins to develop in the fallopian tube

86
 Gastrulation
• Gastrulation (原腸胚形成) rearranges the cells of a blastula into a three-layered embryo, called
a gastrula (原腸胚)

• The three layers produced by gastrulation are called embryonic germ layers
• The ectoderm forms the outer layer
• The endoderm lines the digestive tract
• The mesoderm partly fills the space between the endoderm and ectoderm

• Each germ layer contributes to specific structures in the adult animal

87
Figure 47.8
ECTODERM (outer layer of embryo)

• Epidermis of skin and its derivatives (including sweat glands,

hair follicles)
• Nervous and sensory systems
• Pituitary gland, adrenal medulla
• Jaws and teeth
• Germ cells

MESODERM (middle layer of embryo)

• Skeletal and muscular systems

• Circulatory and lymphatic systems
• Excretory and reproductive systems (except germ cells)
• Dermis of skin
• Adrenal cortex

ENDODERM (inner layer of embryo)

• Epithelial lining of digestive tract and associated organs

(liver, pancreas)
• Epithelial lining of respiratory, excretory, and reproductive tracts
and ducts 88
• Thymus, thyroid, and parathyroid glands
 Gastrulation in Humans

• Human eggs have very little yolk

• A blastocyst is the human equivalent of the blastula

• The inner cell mass is a cluster of cells at one end of

the blastocyst

• The trophoblast is the outer epithelial layer of the

blastocyst and does not contribute to the embryo,
but instead initiates implantation
89
 Figure 47.12 Endometrial epithelium
1 Blastocyst reaches uterus.
(uterine lining)

• Following implantation, the Uterus

Inner cell mass
Trophoblast

trophoblast continues to Blastocoel

expand and a set of 2 Blastocyst implants Expanding region of

(7 days after fertilization). trophoblast

extraembryonic membranes
Maternal
blood Epiblast
vessel Hypoblast

(胚外膜) is formed Trophoblast

Expanding region of
• These enclose specialized 3 Extraembryonic membranes
start to form (10–11 days),
trophoblast
Amniotic cavity
and gastrulation begins
structures outside of the
Epiblast
(13 days).
Hypoblast
Yolk sac (from hypoblast)
embryo Extraembryonic mesoderm cells
(from epiblast)
Chorion (from trophoblast)
• Gastrulation involves the inward
4 Gastrulation has produced a Amnion

movement from the epiblast, three-layered embryo with

four extraembryonic
Chorion
Ectoderm
membranes.
Mesoderm
through a primitive streak (原始 Endoderm
Yolk sac

線) 90
Extraembryonic mesoderm
Allantois
91
 First Trimester

• Human gestation can be divided into three

trimesters of about three months each

• The first trimester is the time of most radical

change for both the mother and the embryo

• During implantation, the endometrium grows

over the blastocyst

92
• During its first 2 to 4 weeks, the embryo obtains
nutrients directly from the endometrium

• Meanwhile, the outer layer of the blastocyst, called

the trophoblast, mingles with the endometrium and
eventually forms the placenta

• Blood from the embryo travels to the placenta

through arteries of the umbilical cord and returns
via the umbilical vein
93
Figure 46.16

Maternal Maternal
arteries veins
Placenta

Umbilical
cord Maternal
portion of
Chorionic placenta
villus,
containing
fetal
capillaries Fetal
portion of
Maternal placenta
blood pool (chorion)
Uterus
Fetal arteriole Fetal venule Umbilical
arteries
Umbilical cord
Umbilical vein

94
 Fraternal Twins Identical Twins

• Splitting of the embryo during the

first month of development results
in genetically identical twins (同卵
雙生)

• Release and fertilization of two

eggs result in fraternal and
genetically distinct twins (異卵雙生)

95
• The first trimester is the main period of
organogenesis, development of the body
organs

• All the major structures are present by 8 weeks,

and the embryo is called a fetus

96
• Changes occur in the mother
• Mucus plug to protect against infection
• Growth of the placenta and uterus
• Cessation of ovulation and the menstrual cycle
• Breast enlargement
• Nausea is also very common

97
Figure 46.17

(a) 5 weeks (b) 14 weeks (c) 20 weeks

98
 Second Trimester
• During the second trimester
• The fetus grows and is very active
• The mother may feel fetal movements
• The uterus grows enough for the pregnancy to become obvious

99
 Third Trimester

• During the third trimester, the fetus grows and

fills the space within the embryonic membranes

• A complex interplay of local regulators and

hormones induces and regulates labor, the
process by which childbirth occurs

100
Figure 46.18

Estradiol Oxytocin
+
from from fetus
ovaries and mother’s
posterior pituitary
Activates oxytocin

Positive feedback
receptors on uterus
Stimulates uterus
to contract

Stimulates
placenta to make +
Prostaglandins

Stimulate more
contractions
of uterus
101
 Figure 46.19
Placenta
Umbilical cord
Uterus
Cervix

• Labor typically has three stages

1 Dilation of the cervix
• Thinning and opening of the
cervix, or dilation
• Expulsion or delivery of the baby
2 Expulsion: delivery of the infant
• Delivery of the placenta
Uterus
Placenta
(detaching)
Umbilical cord

3 Delivery of the placenta

102
• Delivery of the baby and placenta is
brought about by a series of strong,
rhythmic uterine contractions

• Lactation, the production of milk, is

unique to mammals

103
 Maternal Immune Tolerance
of the Embryo and Fetus

• A woman’s acceptance of her “foreign” offspring

is not fully understood

• It may be due to suppression of the immune

response in her uterus

104
 Contraception and Abortion

• Contraception (避孕), the deliberate prevention of

pregnancy, can be achieved in a number of ways

• Contraceptive methods fall into three categories

• Preventing release of eggs and sperm
• Keeping sperm and egg apart
• Preventing implantation of an embryo
105
Figure 46.20
Male Female
Method Event Event Method
Production Production of
of sperm primary oocytes
Vasectomy Combination
birth control
pill (or injection,
Sperm transport Oocyte patch, or
down male development vaginal ring)
duct system and ovulation
Abstinence Abstinence
Condom Female condom
Coitus
interruptus
Sperm Capture of the
(very high
deposited oocyte by the
failure rate)
in vagina oviduct
Tubal ligation
Spermicides;
diaphragm;
Sperm Transport progestin alone
movement of oocyte in (as minipill
through female oviduct or injection)
reproductive
tract

Meeting of sperm and oocyte

in oviduct

Morning-after
Union of sperm and egg pill; intrauterine
device (IUD)

Implantation of blastocyst
106
in endometrium
• The rhythm method, or natural family planning (安全期避孕法), is to refrain from
intercourse when conception is most likely; it has a pregnancy rate of 10–20%

• Coitus interruptus, the withdrawal of the penis before ejaculation, is unreliable

• Barrier methods (障礙避孕法) block fertilization with a pregnancy rate of less than 10%

♂ ♀
• A condom (保險套) fits
over the penis

• A diaphragm (子宮帽) is
inserted into the vagina
before intercourse

107
• Intrauterine devices (IUDs)(子宮內避孕器) are inserted
into the uterus and interfere with fertilization and
implantation; the pregnancy rate is less than 1%

• Female birth control pills (避孕丸) are hormonal

contraceptives with a pregnancy rate of less than 1%

Intrauterine devices (IUDs) 108

• Sterilization (絕育) is permanent and prevents the
release of gametes
• Tubal ligation (輸卵管結紮術) ties off the oviducts
• Vasectomy (輸精管結紮術) ties off the vas deferens

• Abortion (流產) is the termination of a pregnancy

• Spontaneous abortion, or miscarriage, occurs in up
to one-third of all pregnancies
• The drug RU486 results in an abortion within the
first 7 weeks of a pregnancy
109
♂ ♀

110
Detecting Disorders During Pregnancy
• Amniocentesis (羊膜穿刺術) and chorionic villus
sampling (絨毛膜穿刺採樣) are invasive techniques in
which amniotic fluid or fetal cells are obtained for
genetic analysis
• Noninvasive procedures usually use ultrasound
imaging to detect fetal condition
• Genetic testing of the fetus poses ethical questions
and can present parents with difficult decisions
111
112
 Treating Infertility

• Modern technology can provide infertile couples

with assisted reproductive technologies

• In vitro fertilization (IVF)(體外受精) mixes eggs with

sperm in culture dishes and returns the embryo to
the uterus at the 8-cell stage

• Sperm are injected directly into an egg in a type of

IVF called intracytoplasmic sperm injection
(ICSI)(單一精子卵質內顯微注射)
113
114
Thank You For Listening.
Any Questions?