LILONGWE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES

Course Name: Computer Applications

Module 1
FIRST DRAFT

Course Code: CAP 111

July 2016

Module Writers: Eddons Munthali

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COMPUTER APPLICATIONS MODULE

MODULE STRUCTURE

Unit 1: Computer Concepts

Unit 2: Computer Hardware

Unit 3: Computer Software

Unit 4: Computer Networking

Unit 5: Internet and World Wide Web

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Unit 1: COMPUTER APPLICATIONS CONCEPTS

1.1 Unit Introduction

Welcome to unit 1, Computer Application Concepts. Today’s world is an information-rich

world and it has become a necessity for everyone to know about computers. You may have
used a computer before, but have you ever thought of what computers really are and what
they can do to an organisation and general society? The purpose of this unit is to provide an
overview about computer concepts and its fundamentals. In this unit, you will learn the
meaning of computers and how computers process data into information for use in everyday
[Link] addition, you will know the types of computers and their classification. You will also
learn about the generation of computers to understand how computers have changed through
the years to the computers that you are using today. You will then be introduced to computer
languages and translators. Further you will get an overview of the hardware and software
concepts of computers which will be expanded in the subsequent units.

1.2 Unit Key Terms

Ensure that you understand the key terms or phrases used in this unit as listed below.
 Data
 Input
 Output
 Information
 Process
 CPU

1.3 Objectives

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By the end of this unit study, you should be able to:

 Define a computer and its various parts.

 Explain the functions of the computers
 State the advantages of using computers
 Classify computers according to purpose, technology used, size and capacity.
 Describe various characteristics of computer.
 Describe the generations of the computer.

1.4 Unit Content

1.5 Computer Concepts

Nothing has revolutionized modern life the way rapid progress of computers has done.
Computers have gain access to every aspect of our society. Today, computers do much more
than simply compute. They make airline or railway reservation and teach on-line; some super
store scanners calculate our grocery bills while keeping the store inventory; computerised
telephone switching has greatly improved the telephone system and Automatic Teller
Machines (ATM) let us conduct banking transactions from virtually anywhere in the world.

As computers become more widespread in the workplace, new ways to harness their potential
developed. As smaller computers become more powerful, they could be linked together, or
networked, to share memory space, software, and information and communicate with each
other.

1.5.1 What a Computer is.

In a layman’s language, a computer is a fast calculating device that can perform arithmetic
operations. Although the computer was originally invented mainly for doing high speed and
accurate calculations, it is not just a calculating device.

The computer can perform any kind of work involving arithmetic and logical operations on
data. It gets the data through an input device, processes it as per the instructions given and
gives the information as an output. We can define computer as follows:

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A computer is defined as an electronic device that operates under the control of
internally stored instructions that can accept input, process data (both mathematical
processes and logical processes) produce output, and store the results.

You will note from the definition that a computer is a fast electronic device that processes the
input data according to the instructions given by the programmer/user and provides the
desired information as an [Link], a computer transforms data into information.
These two terms are very important in computing.

1.5.2 What is data?

Data can be defined as a representation of facts, numbers, pictures, video or audio, concepts
or instructions in a formalized manner which should be suitable for communication,
interpretation, or processing by human or electronic machine. Data has no meaning in itself
like figure 1.1

Data is represented with the help of characters like alphabets (A-Z,a-z), digits (0-9) or
special characters(+,-,/,*,<,>,= etc.).

…
Figure 1.1: Computer Data

1.5.3 What is Information?

Information is organised or classified data which has some meaningful values for the
receiver.

Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are [Link] makes sense to
the user. Look at figure 1.2. You can easily compare different items and make decisions
based on the figure.

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For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following
characteristics and many more:

 Timely - Information should be available when required.

 Accuracy - Information should be accurate.

 Completeness - Information should be complete.

Figure 1.2: Processed data (Information)

1.6 Functions of a computer

Based on the computer definition, notice the computer function in the following manner:

 The computer accepts input (data). Computer input is whatever is entered or fed into
a computer system. Input can be supplied by a person (such as by using a keyboard)
or by another computer or device. Some examples of input (data) include the words
and symbols in a document, numbers for a calculation, instructions for completing a
process, pictures, and so on.

 The computer performs useful operations, manipulating the data in many [Link]
manipulation is called processing. Examples of processing include performing
calculations, sorting lists of words or numbers, modifying documents and pictures
according to user instructions, and drawing graphs. A computer processes data in the
Central Processing Unit (CPU).

 The computer stores data. A computer must store data so that it is available for
processing. The place where the computer stores the data depends on how the data is
being used. The computer puts the data in one place while it is waiting to be

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 processed and another place when it is not needed for immediate processing. The
storage of data in the computer is called ‘online storage’ while the storage of data on
computer memory sticks (flash disks) or CD-ROMs and others not really residing
inside the computer is called ‘offline storage’.

 The computer produces output. Computer output is information that has been
produced by a computer. Some examples of computer output include reports,
documents, music, graphs, and pictures. Output can be in several different formats,
such as paper or on screen etc.

Figure 1.3: Data Transformation Process

A computer is broadly composed of hardware and Software. Computers hardware are the
physical components or devices which you can see and touch. Software is a set of programs,
which is designed to perform a well-defined function.

There are many types of hardware but basically they are categorised in terms of what they are
used for in the information processing cycle. Software is subdivided into;

a. Software that is required by the computer itself in order to carry out its functions and
b. Software needed by the computer user to carry out a specific

You will learn more about hardware and software in units 2 and 3 respectively.

1.7 Reasons for using computers

You have now known what computers are and how they process data into information. I can
now talk of the reasons we need to involve computers in our work inform of their advantages.

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Basically, computers help in processing the large volumes of data efficiently and accurately
within a short time. To do that, computers have certain characteristics which make them so
advantageous over mankind.

1.7.1 Advantages of using computers

Some of the advantages of using computers over a human being or manually are as follows;

a. Fast: A computer is so fast that it can perform the given task (arithmetical or
logical) in few seconds as compared to man who can spend many months for
doing the same task. A computer can process millions of instructions per
second.

b. Accurate: While doing calculations, a computer is more accurate than man can make
mistakes in calculations but a computer does not make mistakes, if it is
provided accurate instructions.

c. Diligence: A computer does not suffer from the human traits of tiredness and boredom.
Man will be tired and bored while doing millions of calculations but a
computer, being a machine, does this job very efficiently and without any
tiredness and boredom.

d. High Memory: A computer has much more memory or storage capacity than human
being. It can store millions of data and instructions, which can be retrieved and
recalled even after a number of years. This is not possible in case of human
brain.

1.7.2 Disadvantages of Computers

You have seen the important role computers play. Can you imagine of a computer’s
drawback? There are many draw backs in using computers and some of them are;

a. No Intelligence: A computer is a machine and obviously has no intelligence of its

own. Each and every instruction must be given to the computer for doing a task. Man
has an intelligence and it is the man who invented computer and gives it all the
instructions and logic to work. A computer cannot take decisions on its own and it is
the main drawback of computer.

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b. Health risks
c. Impact on labour force
d. Impact on environment

1.8 Classification of computers

The classification of computers is based on the following three criteria:

(a) According to purpose (degree of specialisation)

(b) According to technology used (representation of numbers)

(c) According to type of application

Based on these criteria, the classification of computers is illustrated in Figure 1.2 and
discussed below:

1.8.1 According to Purpose (Degree of Specialisation)

According to the utilization of computer for different uses, computers are of the following
two types:

a. General Purpose Computers: Computers that follow instructions for general

requirements such as sales analysis, financial accounting, invoicing, inventory,
management information etc. are called General Purpose Computers. Almost all
computers used in offices for commercial, educational and other applications are
general purpose computers.

b. Special Purpose Computers: Computers designed from scratch to perform special

tasks like scientific applications and research, weather forecasting, space applications,
medical diagnostics etc. are called Special Purpose Computers.

1.8.2 According to Technology Used (Representation of numbers)

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According to the technology used, computers are of following three types:

a. Analog Computers: Analog computers are special purpose computers that represent
and store data in continuously varying physical quantities such as current, voltage or
frequency. These computers are programmed for measuring physical quantities like
pressure, temperature, speed etc. and to perform computations on these measurements.

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 Analog computers are mainly used for scientific and engineering applications. Some of
the examples of analog computers are given below:

(i) Thermometer: It is a simple analog computer used to measure temperature. In

thermometer, the mercury moves up or down as the temperature varies.

(ii) Speedometer: Car's speedometer is another example of analog computer where the
position of the needle on the dial represents the speed of the car.

b. Digital Computers: Digital computers are mainly general purpose computers that
represent and store data in discrete quantities or numbers. In these computers, all
processing is done in terms of numeric representation (Binary Digits) of data and
information. Although the user enter data in decimal or character form, it is converted
into binary digits (0's and l's). I will discuss more of the number conversions in
subsequent sections of this unit.

Almost all the computers used nowadays are digital computers. Again, I will discuss
the detailed working and types of these computers in subsequent sections of this unit 1.

c. Hybrid Computers: Hybrid computers incorporate the technology of both analog and
digital computers. These computers store and process analog signals which have been
converted into discrete numbers using analog-to-digital converters. They can also
convert the digital numbers into analog signals or physical properties using digital-to-
analog converters. Hybrid computers are mainly used in artificial intelligence (robotics)
and computer aided manufacturing (e.g. process control).

1.8.3 According to type of application

There are two types in this aspect, Scientific and Business Applications.

a. Scientific Applications: are designed to handle scientific application more

effectively. They require small volume of data input and output.

b. Business Data Processing Application: These computers are designed to handle

business data processing applications. They need a large data file, input storage,
output storage devices and large storage capabilities.

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 Unit Activity 1.1

1. What is a computer?
2. You might have come up with a product out of the raw materials that you used.
Relate this to computer data transformation process.
3. What are the main characteristics of computers that make it advantageous?
4. What are general purpose computers?
5. What are analog computers? Give examples.
6. Compare hybrid computers over digital computers

1.9 Types of Computers

We have so far looked at the classification of computers. Now let us look at the types of
computers. The types of computers come according to the size and memory or storage
capacity. Thus, there are many types of computers including the following four:

a. Supercomputers
b. Mainframe Computers
c. Minicomputer now often called "Mid-Range" Computers
d. Microcomputer now called Personal Computers (PC)

1.9.1 Supercomputers

Supercomputer are the biggest and fastest computers. Supercomputers are capable of
processing more than one quadrillion instructions in a single second. It has many Central
Processing Units (CPU). CPU is the main part of the computer. CPU operate in parallel to

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make it as a fastest computer .For this reason, supercomputers are mainly designed for
complex scientific applications. You will learn about CPU and other parts of the computer in
subsequent units. Supercomputer is typically used for the following applications:

 Weather Forecasting
 Petroleum Exploration and Production
 Energy Management
 Defence
 Nuclear Energy Research
 Structural Analysis
 Electronic Design
 Real-time Animation
 Medicine

Some of the examples of supercomputers are CRAY3, CRAY-XMP-14, NEC500, P ARAM

9000 and P ARAM 10000.

Figure 1.4: Super computers

1.9.2 Mainframe Computers

Mainframe computers are very large and fast computers but smaller and slower than
supercomputers. These are used in a centralized location where many terminals (input/output
devices) are connected with one CPU and thus, allow different users to share the single CPU.
They have a very high memory (several hundred Megabytes) and can support thousands of
users. Mainframes can be used in several but they are mainly used for following applications:

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  Railway and Airline Reservations
 Banking Applications
 Commercial Applications of Large Industries/Companies

Some of the examples of mainframe computers are IBM 3090, IBM 4381, IBM 4300 and
IBM ES-9000.

1.9.3 Minicomputers

Minicomputers are medium-scale, smaller and generally slower than mainframe computers.
Like mainframes, they have many terminals which are connected with one CPU and can
support many users. The cost of minicomputer is very less as compared to mainframe.
Therefore, it is mainly used in applications where processing can be distributed among
several minicomputers rather than using a mainframe computer. Some of the examples of
minicomputers are PDP-1, IBM AS/400 and DEC Micro VAX. IBM AS/400, which is
actually a mid-computer (computer with performance between a mainframe and
minicomputer) is becoming very popular among minicomputers.

1.9.4 Microcomputer

A microcomputer is the smallest digital computer, which uses a microprocessor as its CPU.
Microprocessor is a single chip (Integrated Circuit) CPU. Microcomputer is popularly called
as Personal Computer (PC). It can be used both as a stand-alone machine and a terminal in a
multi-user environment. Microcomputers are becoming very popular nowadays due to high
processing power and memory.

Today, a powerful microcomputer may be used as a substitute for mini or mainframe

computer. Microcomputers are either of desktop or portable model. Portable computers can
be carried from one place to another. Some of the models are called as laptops while others as
notebook computers. Notebook computers are smaller, lighter and costlier than laptops.
Desktop computers fit on a desktop and are used widely in offices and homes. There are
many types and models of microcomputers.

1.9.5 Personal computers

These are commonly known as PC, microcomputers, or home based computers which are
commonly used these days. The microcomputer is trading expensively on the market due to

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its portability and speed. The way there are designed makes it more suitable for personal
usage. They are normally single-microprocessors, single user and designed for general
purpose applications. These can perform some many tasks. It can accept data, process data
into information, store and display information inform of output. For the computer to perform
these functions, a computer needs to contain input devices, a central processing unit (CPU)
and storage devices.

So, whenever we talk about a Pc, it usually means one of the IBM-compatible PCs. PS/2 and
PS/1 (PS stands for Personal System) are IBM computer series introduced in 1987 and 1990
respectively.

Apple Macintosh PC (popularly called as Mac) is another series of 32-bit personal computers,
introduced in 1984 by one of the first microcomputer manufacturing company - Apple (Apple
Computer, Inc.). Apple is the largest independent manufacturer of non-IBM-compatible PCs.
Apple Mac PC uses the Motorola (a leading manufacturer of semiconductor devices) 68000
processor family and a proprietary operating system. As this PC comes with its own
operating system, there is no need of DOS or other operating system for operating it.

The method of operating a Mac PC is known as Macintosh user interface. All Mac PCs have
graphics displays, as their operating systems provide Graphical User Interface (GUI). The
Mac PC always displays a row of menu titles at the top of the screen, from which options are
selected. Although the first Mac PC was praised by many users due to its ease of use and
low-cost system, it was not exciting for most corporate buyers due to its slow speed, small
screen and closed architecture (a system whose technical specifications are not made public).

In 1987, Apple manufactured Mac II, which offers full-size screens, high-speed and open
architecture (a system whose technical specifications are made public).

In 1991, IBM formed an alliance with Apple to fully integrate Macs into IBM enterprise
networks for developing PowerPC with Motorola. IBM-compatible PCs are used as stand-
alone machines or as workstations/ file servers in a local area network (we will discuss about
local area network in later part of this unit). These PCs are very popular as stand-alone
systems, which run under DOS. IBM-compatible PCs (80486 & above) are also popular for
using as client/server systems (we will also discuss about client/server systems in later part of
this unit). On the other hand, Apple/Macintosh PCs are rarely used as the primary client
computers in client/server systems. Macintosh PCs are useful mainly for desktop publishing
systems, due to graphical user interface. IBM compatible PCs, on the other hand, are useful

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for any kind of business applications. They have become very popular among all users in
Malawi and abroad.

1.10 Computer Generations

Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being

used. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware
technologies. But nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which
together make up an entire computer system.

History of Computers

The world of business has changed dramatically since the

introduction of the first modern multipurpose computer over 50 years

ago. The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer),

designed by Drs. Mauchly and Eckert, two American engineers, was

set up at the University of Pennsylvania in 1946. This 30-ton machine

occupied a thirty-by-thirty feet room, contained 18,000 vacuum tubes

linked by 500 miles of wiring, and could perform 100,000 operations

per second.

It consumed so much electricity. Thanks to the development of the

integrated chip, the computer has evolved into a far smaller, more

powerful, and less expensive machine. Today’s microcomputer is

more than 3,000 times lighter than the ENIAC, performs 4000 times

faster, and costs several million dollars less. Other innovations have

made the computer easy enough for a child to use and versatile

enough for applications ranging from astrophysics to arcade-style

games. As a consequence of their decreasing size and cost, computers

can be found today in virtually every society, from research facilities

and corporate headquarters, to schools and homes.

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There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been
discussed in detail along with their time period and characteristics. Here approximate dates
against each generations have been mentioned. The following are the main five generations
of computers;

1.10.1 First Generation Computers

The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.

The period of first generation was 1946-1959. The computers of first generation used
vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central
Processing Unit). These tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and were prone to
frequent fusing of the installations, therefore, were very expensive and could be afforded
only by very large organisations. In this generation mainly batch processing operating
system were used. Punched cards, paper tape, and magnetic tape were used as input and
output devices. The computers in this generation used machine code as programming
language.

Figure 1.6: First generation computers

The main features of first generation are:  Supported machine language only

 Very costly
 Vacuum tube technology
 Generated lot of heat
 Unreliable
 Slow input and output devices

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  Huge size  ENIAC

 Need of A.C.  EDVAC

 UNIVAC
 Non-portable
 IBM-701
 Consumed lot of electricity
 IBM-650
Some computers of this generation were:

1.10.2 Second Generation Computers

The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.

The period of second generation was 1959-1965. In this generation transistors were used that
were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster than the
first generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores were
used as primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage
devices. In this generation assembly language and high-level programming languages like
FORTRAN, COBOL were used. The computers used batch processing and
multiprogramming operating system.

Figure 1.7: Second Generation computers

The main features of second generation are:

 Use of transistors

 Reliable in comparison to first generation computers

 Smaller size as compared to first generation computers

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 Generated less heat as compared to first generation computers

 Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers

 Faster than first generation computers

 Still very costly

 A.C. needed

 Supported machine and assembly languages

Some computers of this generation were:

 IBM 1620

 IBM 7094

 CDC 1604

 CDC 3600

 UNIVAC 1108

1.10.3 Third Generation

The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.

The computers of third generation used integrated circuits (IC's) in place of transistors. A
single IC has many transistors, resistors and capacitors along with the associated circuitry.
The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size,
reliable and efficient. In this generation remote processing, time-sharing, multi-
programming operating system were used. High-level languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV,
COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.

Figure 1.8: Third Generation Computers

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 The main features of third generation are:

 IC used

 More reliable in comparison to previous two generations

 Smaller size

 Generated less heat

 Faster

 Lesser maintenance

 Still costly

 A.C needed

 Consumed lesser electricity

 Supported high-level language

Some computers of this generation were:

 IBM-360 series

 Honeywell-6000 series

 PDP(Personal Data Processor)

 IBM-370/168

 TDC-316

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1.10.4 Fourth Generation

The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.

The period of fourth generation was 1971-1980. The computers of fourth generation used Very
Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other
circuit elements and their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have
microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth generation computers became more powerful,
compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal computer (PC) revolution.
In this generation time sharing, real time, networks, distributed operating system were used. All
the high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE etc., were used in this generation.

Figure 1.9: Fourth Generation computers

The main features of fourth generation are:

 VLSI technology used

 Very cheap

 Portable and reliable

 Use of PC's

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 Very small size

 Pipeline processing

 No A.C. needed

 Concept of internet was introduced

 Great developments in the fields of networks

 Computers became easily available

Some computers of this generation were:

 DEC 10

 STAR 1000

 PDP 11

 CRAY-1(Super Computer)

 CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

1.10.5 Fifth Generation

The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor based

The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology
became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of
microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components. This generation is based on
parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging
branch in computer science, which interprets means and method of making computers think
like human beings. All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in
this generation.

AI includes:

 Robotics

 Neural Networks

 Game Playing

 Development of expert systems to make decisions in real life situations.

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 Natural language understanding and generation.

Figure 1.10: Fifth Generation computers

The main features of fifth generation are:

 ULSI technology

 Development of true artificial intelligence

 Development of Natural language processing

 Advancement in Parallel Processing

 Advancement in Superconductor technology

 More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features

 Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates

Some computer types of this generation are:

 Desktop

 Laptop

 NoteBook

 UltraBook

 ChromeBook

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 Unit Test
1. What are super computers?
2. What is the difference between mainframes and mini computers?
3. What are micro computers?
4. Describe the technology change at each computer generation stage

1.11 Unit Summary

From this unit, you have learnt the definition of a computer as an electronic device that
operates under the control of internally stored instructions that can accept input, process data
(both mathematical processes and logical processes) produce output, and store the results.

You were able to tell that computers first, accepts data such as raw facts, figures, and
symbol then processes data into information (Data that is organized, meaningful, and useful
finally, Produces and stores results for future use. You also learnt the functions of computers
over human being. You were further told the types, classification and generation of
computers.

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Unit 2: Computers –Hardware Concepts. (Introduction to Computer hardware and
associated Components)

2.1 Unit Introduction

Welcome to Unit 2: Computer Hardware Concepts. You will recall from unit 1 the
definition of a computer and its basic functions. You will also recall from unit 1 that
computer components can be broadly divided into two categories - Hardware and Software.
Understanding the various physical components of a computer system will help you
understand how the system works as a whole. This unit 2 covers foundational understanding
of computer hardware and its peripherals that go along with computer operations also
discussed in unit [Link] will discuss the software part in unit 3.

2.2 Unit Key Terms

Ensure that you understand the key terms or phrases used in this unit as listed below.
 Hardware
 Peripheral device
 System Unit
 Input devices
 Output devices
 Processing Devices
 Storage devices
 Internal components

2.3 Objectives
By the end of this unit study, you should be able to:

 Describe computer hardware

 Describe the input, storage, processing and output and communication hardware
components
 Relate the use of the different hardware devices

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 2.4 Unit Content

2.5 Computer Hardware

The term hardware refers to the tangible parts of a computer system, that is, the physical

equipment of the computer. A keyboard, disk drive, and monitor are examples of computer

hardware. As described above, the general model of a computer consists of an input system,

storage system, process system, and output system. My discussion of computer hardware

will, therefore, be organized around these systems, along with communications as an

additional function of which some computers are capable.

As I have already said, all computers require the following types of hardware components:

1) Input Devices: The Data is input into the computer. Data is the numbers, words,
images, etc. that are given to the computer during the input process. Data is input using
Input Devices: keyboard, mouse, joystick, touch screens, etc.
2) Process Devices: This is the manipulation of the data to create useful information. Data
is processed very quickly within the computer, within billionths of a second. Once the
raw facts are processed into a meaningful form it is called information. Computer
processing is accomplished through the CPU (Central Processing Unit). The CPU
interprets the instructions for the computer. It performs all logical and arithmetical
operations as well as causes all input and output to occur. The CPU is contained on a
Microprocessor chip.
3) Output Devices: Output devices convert digital signals from the computer into a
recognizable output. This is accomplished via the monitor or the printer.
4) Storage Devices: Auxiliary storage is used to permanently store information for future
use. This storage is outside the workings of the computer – these are often called
Secondary Storage devices. These include Flash disk or sometimes called memory
sticks, hard drives, CD Roms, DVD’s, etc.

2.5.1 Input Hardware Devices

An input system comprises one or more devices that the user employs to enter data or
instructions into the memory of the computer so that the CPU can subsequently process them.

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Data, as discussed above, are unorganized facts that can become useful output by being
transformed into information. Instructions may be input as programs (instructions that direct
the performance of the computer), commands (instructions direct a program), and user
responses (instructions from the user created by replying to a question posed by the
computer). Input devices come in many forms. Some of the more common devices are
described below.

Keyboard. The keyboard is one of the most common input devices. In addition to keys that

represent letters, numbers, and special characters, keyboards often contain function keys, to

which the user can assign personalized commands, and special-purpose keys, such as the

enter key. Some keyboards contain a numeric keypad (a set of keys in the form of a calculator

keypad) that is used for entering numbers conveniently and easily. While most keyboards are

connected to the computer by a cable, there are wireless keyboards that transmit their input

by means of infrared signals.

Figure 2.1: Computer Keyboard

Mouse. Connected to many modern microcomputers is a hand-sized input device called a

mouse, or pointing device. A mechanical mouse contains a ball that rolls along a flat surface,

moving a cursor (pointer) on the computer screen. An optical mouse uses light signals to

detect the movement of the mouse and thereby move the pointer on the screen. Through the

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use of one to four buttons on top of the mouse (and a wheel on some versions of the mouse),

the user can select and manipulate objects represented on the screen as icons (symbols). The

mouse is a convenient and effective way to interact with the graphical user interfaces (GUIs)

that dominate the current computer environment.

Figure 2.2: The Mouse

Touchpad. This input device is a small rectangular surface that operates by means of

pressure and motion, and allows the user to perform all of the functions of a mouse by touch.

Moving the fingertip across the touch pad moves the cursor across the screen. Tapping the

touch pad acts as clicks and double-clicks. Touchpads are most commonly found on laptop

computers.

Figure 2.3: Touchpad

27
Pointing Stick. Like the touchpad, this pressure-sensitive input device fills the role of the

mouse in some laptops. It is shaped like a pencil eraser and fits between keys in the keyboard.

Moving the pointing stick moves the cursor. This device is mostly found on laptop

computers.

Figure 2.4: Pointing stick.

Trackball. The trackball is basically an upside-down mouse. Instead of rolling the ball on a

surface as with the mouse, the user rotates the trackball with the hand directly to position the

cursor on the screen.

Touch Screen. This input device is often used in public places, such as shopping centers,

hotels, and airports, where users may not have much experience working with computers.

The user simply touches the screen for the desired menu item.

Figure 2.5: Touch screen

28
Light Pen. This light-sensitive device is used for entering data by writing on a computer

screen. Engineers, designers, and architects use light pens to draw and modify shapes on the

screen.

Figure 2.6: Light pen

Graphics Tablet. A graphics tablet is a flat rectangular board used to input drawings or other

graphical data. The user draws on the graphics tablet with an electronic pen or a mouse-like

device (called a puck). The drawing movements are converted into digital signals that are

sent to the computer as input. Architects and mapmakers commonly use this input device.

Speech Recognition Devices. These devices recognize the words spoken by users. Sample

voice patterns are analyzed, digitized, and stored in a database. Later, during operations,

actual voice inputs are compared with the stored voice pattern. Speech or voice recognition

technology is best suited to structured input applications in work environments where the

user’s hands are occupied. For example, a receiving clerk may enter data about items

received with the following phrases:

“Invoice 998810”, “Item 56213”, “Quantity 100”, “Condition Good”

From these inputs, the speech recognition system will create a record of items received by a

receiving clerk.

Audio Input Devices. In addition to speech recognition devices, sound may be entered into

29
computers with audio input devices. These devices allow music, speech, and other sound

effects to be used as input. Sound may be entered through a microphone, electronic piano

keyboard, tape player, and CD player. For high quality sound recording, a sound card needs

to be installed in the computer. For some electronic input devices a special serial port, called

a musical instrument digital interface (MIDI), is required.

Video Input Devices and Digital Cameras. Video input devices and digital cameras allow

optical and graphical images to be entered into the computer for storage and processing.

Digital cameras allow the user to store still-pictures as digital files (for example, .jpg’s and

.gif’s) that can be used by the computer like other graphic images. They may be edited, e-

mailed, printed, faxed, inserted into documents, and displayed on the monitor. Video input

devices enable the user to store and process full-motion images generated from camcorders

and VCRs.

Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs). ATMs have revolutionized banking by extending

“bankers’ hours” to 24 hours a day. ATM users can withdraw cash, transfer funds, and make

deposits at their convenience. Most ATM devices employ some sort of card input that

contains information about the user. The user inserts the card and he/she is prompted to enter

a personal identification number (PIN) to authorize access. If the user fails to enter the correct

PIN after three attempts, the ATM will assume an unauthorized person is attempting an

illegal access. It will then implement a predetermined action. This may be to lock the user out

of the system or have the ATM destroy or confiscate the access card. In any case, the user

will need to appear in person at the bank and reestablish access authority.

Point-of-Sale(POS) Devices. POS terminals are found in many kinds of retail businesses; for

example, grocery stores. Most POS terminals use some type of optical scanning device,

usually involving laser beams, for reading the product code on an item. The product code,

30
sometimes called a bar code, is the primary key for retrieving the price and description data

from the database.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) Devices. MICR devices read characters

printed in magnetized ink on documents. The banking industry, in particular, has made

extensive use of MICR for reading and processing checks and deposit slips.

Optical Scanning Devices. Optical scanning is the process of digitizing textual or graphic

images. The scanner is a light-sensing device that converts an image into an analog signal

that in turn is converted into a digital signal for computer storage and processing. The

resulting file is called a bitmap (.bmp files). Optical scanning is a popular technique for

capturing photographs for computer usage but it may also be effectively used with printed

and handwritten text.

Optical Character Recognition (OCR) Devices. OCR devices convert typed and, in some

cases, handwritten data into electronic input. This allows paper source documents to be

converted to electronic form without rekeying. Although OCR devices can recognize

handwritten characters and a variety of fonts and typefaces, this technology is not perfectly

reliable. In spite of high error rates, OCR is a cost-effective means of converting large

volumes of source documents that otherwise would need to be keyed manually.

Optical Mark Recognition. This input device is able to read the hand-drawn marks and

darkened in fields placed on surveys, tests, and questionnaires.

One notable aspect of input devices is the degree to which a device eliminates the need for

manual data entry. Manual data entry is a common source of error. Some input devices

require fully manual data entry; e.g., keyboards. Others have done away with manual entry

completely; e.g., optical scanners.

31
 Unit Activity 2.1
1. What is your understanding about computer hardware?
2. How is an ATM classified as an input device
3. Under what conditions would you call a screen as an output device?
4. List input hardware devices used to capture,
a. Voice/sound
b. Characters
c. Pictures

1.5.2 Storage system

Inputs are sent either to the memory or storage, waiting subsequent processing by the

computer. With regards to computers, there is a commonly accepted distinction between the

terms memory (or primary memory) and storage (or secondary storage). Memory refers to the

instructions, information, and data waiting for immediate processing. For this reason,

memory is also referred to as working memory. Memory is saved electronically on memory

chips. Storage, information and instructions are saved on magnetic or optical media. It is

faster to access data and instructions from primary memory than from secondary storage

media, but the information in memory is usually volatile; i.e., it disappears when the

computer’s power is turned off. (Actually, the situation is a bit more complicated because

there are also some types of memory that are nonvolatile. These will be discussed in the

"Central Processing System" section below.) The information saved in storage media is

nonvolatile and remains in the computer even when power is off. In general, data and

instructions are kept in secondary storage when not needed for processing. When required for

processing by the CPU, they are retrieved from storage media, sent to the memory, whereits

kept until processed.

Storage systems have two components: the storage medium (e.g., hard disk or a CD) that

32
contains the saved information and the storage device or drive that reads from and writes

onto the storage medium. Permanent, non-volatile storage media include flash disks, installed

hard disks, compact disks (CDs), removable hard disks, and others. Storage and memory are

usually measured in bytes, which consist of 8 bits (binary digits of 0 or 1). A single byte is

used to encode a single character (letter or number). One thousand bytes are a kilobyte (KB).

One million bytes are a megabyte (MB). One billion bytes are a gigabyte (GB). One trillion

bytes are a terabyte (TB). For comparison, the average book contains about 1 MB of

information and the storage capacity of human memory is about 10 TB (or 1 million books).

Hard disks are also magnetic-based storage media. Both the hard drive and the hard disks are

usually installed inside the computer. Portable external hard drives are connected to the

computer by a cable. Current PC hard disks typically have a capacity from 2 to 50 GB or

even several terabytes. Data access time is the time required to locate a piece of stored

information in storage and retrieve it into primary memory or the CPU. Hard drives have a

faster data access time than other drives.

Figure 2.7: Hard disk

Compact disks are optical storage media that employ laser technology. CDs can hold up to

700 MB. CDs are often read-only, although many PCs are now equipped with CD drives that

allow the user to record information on the CD. Some writable CDs can be recorded on only

once. These are designated as CD-R (compact disc-recordable). Others CDs can be recorded

on multiple times and are designated as CD-RW (compact disc-rewritable). Video data (e.g.,

33
movies) can be stored on a specialize type of CD called CD—DVDs (digital video discs). As

with CDs, there is recordable variation of DVDs (DVD-R) that allows the user to record

video data from his or her computer, provided that the computer is equipped with a DVD

writer.

Figure 2.8: Storage media (Compact Disk Recordable)

Tape cartridges use magnetically treated plastic ribbon to store information. Tape cartridges

can hold large amounts of information, up to 80 GB or even more. One disadvantage of tape

storage is that information must be accessed sequentially. For example, to retrieve

information stored in the middle of the tape, the entire first half of the tape must be run.

Disks, on the other hand, allow for direct (or random) access, which means that a piece of

information may be located immediately. Magnetic tape cartridges, of course, require

magnetic tape drives.

Figure 2.9: Magnetic tape

Removable hard disks are magnetic-based hard disks that can be removed from the hard

disk drive and easily transported. The disk drive that reads from and writes onto the

34
removable hard disk is either installed in the computer or attached to the computer by a port.

The portable hard disk is encased in a plastic or metal container for protection. The disks

typically can store up to 10 GB or more. The Jaz disk by Iomega is a popular example.

2.5.3 Processing Devices

Once data has been input into the computer and stored, the computer must be able to retrieve

and manipulate it in useful ways. This task is handled by the hardware that makes up the

central processing system, which includes the primary memory, the central processing unit

(CPU), expansion cards, ports, buses, and connectors. The various parts of the computer

system are connected through a printed circuit board called the system board or motherboard.

The system board contains the primary memory, the CPU, the system clock, expansion slots,

and expansion ports. In a PC, the central processing system is housed a box-like case called

the system case or system unit.

[Link] Memory

As discussed above, instructions and data needed for immediate processing are usually placed

in memory. A computer has two types of memory: volatile and nonvolatile. They are used

for the long- and short-term retention of information, respectively. RAM and cache are

examples of volatile memory—the primary memory. ROM and CMOS are examples of

nonvolatile memory.

Random-access memory (RAM) temporarily holds data, the operating system (instructions

that control the computer’s operation), and application software (instructions that manipulate

data). The operating system resides in RAM only for a while when the computer is turned on.

The application software remains in RAM only while it is being used. Unless there is enough

RAM to hold the application software for more than one program at a time, when new

application software is retrieved from secondary storage, it is loaded into RAM, replacing the

35
application software that was previously residing there. Most current computers have enough

RAM to run several applications simultaneously, a process called multitasking.

Data and instructions which are about to be processed are in RAM, and they are the output of

the processes. Recall that the data and instructions in working memory (i.e., RAM) are

electronically stored, as opposed to being magnetically or optically stored. Thus, when the

computer is shut down, all instructions and data in RAM are lost because the flow of

electricity ceases. In RAM, any address can be randomly accessed at any time; hence the

name random-access memory.

Figure 2.9: Random access memory (RAM)

Cache memory is very fast RAM. It is used to store frequently used instructions. Computers

that have cache memory process data faster than computers without it because data travels

faster from cache to the CPU than from RAM to the CPU. Some cache is built directly in the

processor chip, while other cache is in a chip external to the processor chip.

Read-only memory (ROM) contains instructions that the computer uses to operate various

aspects of the hardware. Unlike RAM, the information stored in the ROM chip is not lost

when the computer is turned off. However, this information is written in the factory and

cannot be altered by the user. ROM, for example, contains the instructions the computer

follows to load the operating system when first turned on.

Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS), like ROM, is also nonvolatile

36
memory. Unlike ROM, the user can change CMOS. For example, CMOS contains date and

time information that the user can update.

Student Activity 2.2

1. Describe the difference between,

a. Computer memory and Computer storage.

b. Storage media and storage device.

c. CD-R AND CD-RW.

d. ROM and RAM.

2. What is the main computer storage medium?

[Link] Central Processing Unit (CPU).

The CPU consists of two components—an arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) and a control unit.

The ALU performs arithmetic calculations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and

division), comparisons (greater than, less than, and equal to), and logical operations (and, or,

and not). All transformations of "meaningless" data into "useful" information ultimately are

the result of these three functions.

The control unit retrieves instructions and data from primary memory and determines which

instructions the ALU will carry out. The CPU also contains registers, which are temporary

holding areas where data resides before an instruction is executed. Note the multiple layers of

information retention required by the computer: storage (where information is kept long-

term), memory (where information is kept short-term), and registers (where information is

kept during processing).

In a PC, the CPU is usually contained in one chip, called the microprocessor or simply,

processor; e.g., the Intel Pentium IV and the AMD Athlon. In larger computers, several

37
chips are required.

Figure 2.10: Microprocessor

The processing or transformation of data into information is called the Processing or

Machinecycle. The Machine cycle consists of two subsidiary cycles called the Instruction

cycle and the Execution cycle, each performing two processes, for a total of four stages. The

ALU, primary memory, and the control unit are involved in these cycles.

In the Instruction cycle, the control unit;

first (1) fetches—the technical term—instructions from the registers,

where the data to be processed is also being kept.

The control unit next (2) decodes the instruction and sends it to the ALU,

the thinking part of the processor. Now the Execution cycle begins.

The ALU (3) executes the instructions by performing an arithmetic,

comparison, or logical operation on the data in the registers.

The result is then (4) stored or written to the registers where it will

eventually be displayed and saved in memory or storage. The time to

complete the both the Instruction cycle and Execution cycle is called

machinetime.

One measurement of the capacity of a computer system is how much RAM can be addressed.

This depends on the number of bits in an address. A RAM address location stores either data

38
or instructions. The size of the address—that is, the number of bits at a specific address

location—is called the word size. A computer address can have a word size of 8, 16, 32, or 64

bits. The CPU chip is considered to be an 8-, 16-, 32-, or 64-bit CPU, according to its

capacity to receive data from RAM. The larger the word size, the more data the control unit

can fetch from RAM.

SYSTEM CLOCK. The system clock, a vibrating quartz crystal chip that emits pulses,

synchronizes the operations of the CPU. The frequency of these pulses is the CPU’s

clockspeed, which is measured in megahertz (MHz). (One megahertz equals one million

cycles per second.) A CPU requires a fixed number of clock cycles to execute an instruction.

Thus, the faster the clock speed, the faster the computer can process instructions.

Another way to describe the CPU’s speed is by how many instructions it can process per

second. This measurement is given in millions of instructions per second (MIPS). Megahertz

is a better benchmark than MIPS because a computer’s system clock is constant, whereas

instructions vary in their difficulty and thus in the number of cycles required for their

completion. A computer performing simple instructions would be faster in terms of MIPS

than the same computer performing more complex instructions. For such reasons, IBM no

longer advertises the MIPS capability of its computers.

In addition to increasing clock speed, processing may also be enhanced by pipelining,

coprocessing, and parallel processing. Traditionally, the entire Machine cycle (fetch,

decode, execute, and store) has to be completed before the next one can start. Pipelining

allows the CPU to begin a second Machine cycle before the first cycle is complete. With full

pipelining, up to four cycles may be processed in a CPU simultaneously. Coprocessors

increase computer performance by the use of a specialized chip that handles specific tasks,

thereby freeing up the main processor to do other work. Common examples are graphics

coprocessors for displaying images on the monitor and floating-point coprocessors for

39
handling arithmetic calculations. Parallel processing enables a computer to use multiple

processors to solve a single problem. Special software divides the problem in to several parts,

assigns the parts to different processors where that parts are solve simultaneously, resembles

the partial solutions, and completes any remaining problem solving. Not all problems can be

solved by this method and it is not usually found in PCs.

EXPANSION SLOTS. Peripheral devices, such as keyboards, disk drives, and monitors, are

connected to the computer through expansion circuit boards (also called expansion cards,

adapter cards, add-ins, add-ons, and interface cards) plugged into the expansion slots

provided on the motherboard. Types of expansion cards include:

 A disk controller card connecting a disk drive

 An accelerator card increasing CPU speed

 A video graphic card connecting a monitor

 A fax/modem card connecting a telephone line

 A memory card for adding memory

 A PC-TV card for connecting to a television

 A sound card connecting external speakers

 A game card connecting a joystick

 An interface card connecting peripherals such as mouse devices and

scanners

 A local area network card connecting other computers

Laptops and notebooks have a special type of expansion card called a PC card. Unlike

desktop-type expansion cards, you can add or change a PC card without opening the system

case of the computer. The PC card is simply plugged into the appropriate opening in the

laptop or notebook. PC cards can be used to add memory, fax/modem, disk drives, and sound

40
capabilities. Most PC cards follow standards developed by the Personal Computer Memory

Card International Association (PCMCIA). Following the PCMCIA standards allow various

PC cards to be interchanged between laptops and notebooks produced by different

manufacturers.

BUSES. Data in the form of electric on-off signals (bits) travel along pathways called buses

that connect the various parts of the computer. There are two types of buses: system buses

and expansion buses. The system bus connects the CPU to primary memory, allowing

instructions and data to be exchanged. Expansion buses connect the CPU to peripheral

devices, allowing data to travel from the CPU to the expansion slots and out through the

expansion cards to the peripheral devices attached to the computer.

Buses consist of sets of parallel wires or lines. Each line carries one bit. (Eight bits equal one

byte.) Thus, a bus is measured by how many bits it can carry simultaneously. The wider the

bus, the more information it can carry. Most current computers have either 32-bit or 64-bit

bus width. Another measure of buses is their clock speed, measured in MHz. Like the

processor, the bus clock speed determines how fast the bus functions.

Expansion buses are usually slower at transferring information than system buses. The

expansion buses also determine the types of expansion cards that can be added to the

computer. Three of the most common expansion buses, listed in order of speed, are:

 Industry Standard Architecture (ISA). This bus is the slowest and most common

expansion bus. It is used to connect mouse devices, modems, sound cards, and some

network cards.

 Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP). This expansion bus is faster than the ISA, and is

used to connect video cards and memory.

 Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI). A high-speed expansion bus used to

connect hard disks, video cards, and network cards.

41
  The Universal Serial Bus (USB) uses a new approach to connecting peripheral devices

to the computer. It does away with the need to install new expansion cards for each

new device. Instead, USB-capable devices are connected to each other in a daisy

chain, and only one device is actually connected to the computer through a cable

attached to the USB port. The USB port feeds into the USB, which in turn connects to

the PCI, and then on to the motherboard.

Student Activity 2.3

1. Explain the two main components of Central Processing Unit

2. Discuss the instruction cycle in the control unit of the CPU

3. Describe the three most common expansion buses

4. Explain any three most popular special purpose ports

2.5.4 Output Hardware Devices

I have talked about the input, storage and processing devices. Let me now proceed to talk

about output devices.

Like the input hardware devices, the output devices provides an interface through which

computers and humans can interact with one another. However, now the human is on the

receiving end of the process. Output devices are used to display input data that has been

processed by the computer into useful output information. Through its output system, the

computer presents the data it contains in a form that the user can understand. The

presentation is typically in one of four forms: graphics (e.g., charts and photographs), text

(e.g., words and numbers), video (e.g., photographic images in motion), or audio (e.g., music

and speech). Probably the most common output devices are monitors for producing

temporary displays (soft copies) and printers for producing paper copies of documents (hard

copies).

42
[Link] Monitors.

A monitor, or screen, can display graphics, text, and video output. To display video in the

monitor, the computer needs a video card (or graphics card) for converting the digital signal

(i.e., data in the form of 0s and 1s) from the processor to an analog signal (i.e., data in the

form of a continuous electrical wave) that the monitor can interpret.

Monitors are described in two ways. The first is by the number of colors that the screen can

display. This can range from 4 to 65,536. The second is by the quality, or resolution, of the

screen, which is measured in picture elements (pixels). Pixels are tiny dots of light that

combine to form images on the screen. Typical screens have 320 × 220 pixels, 640 × 480

pixels, or 1,024 × 768 pixels. The more pixels a screen has, the greater its resolution. Both

color and resolution are important for determining the performance and quality of a computer

monitor.

The IBM-compatible color/graphic monitors have evolved from the Color Graphic Adapter

(CGA) technology, which featured 4 colors and a resolution of 320 × 220, through the

Enhanced Graphic Adapter (EGA) and the Video Graphics Array (VGA) technologies. The

current state-of-the-art for the personal computer is the Super Video Graphics Array (SVGA);

for these monitors, the number of colors varies from 256 to 65,536, and the resolution varies

from 800 × 600 to 1,600 × 1,200.

Monitors come in three main varieties: cathode-ray tubes (CRT), flat-screen liquid-crystal

displays (LCD), and gas-plasma displays. All of these are now capable of either monochrome

(black-and-white) or color displays. Desktop PCs usually come with CRTs, although flat-

screen LCDs are becoming more common. Flat-screen LCDs are generally used in notebooks

and laptops. The common desktop CRT sizes range from 15 to 21 inches. Laptop LCDs sizes

are commonly 14.1 to 15.1 inches. Gas-plasma displays are capable of larger displays with

good resolution and can be in excess of 42 inches.

43
[Link] Printers.

It was once thought that as computers became more common in business and in the home, we

would move toward a “paperless society.” That is, all data would be circulated and used in

electronic form, eliminating the need for printed material. This vision has yet to be realized.

In businesses, homes, and most settings where computers are found, users still produce hard

copy(information in printed form). For most applications, soft copy (information in electronic

form) is not adequate.

To produce hard copy, a computer must be connected to a printer. This is typically done

through a parallel port, which enables the computer to communicate with the printer one byte

at a time. Microcomputers may have one or more parallel ports.

When microcomputers first invaded the workplace, the most popular type of printer was the

dot-matrix printer, which can still be found in service today. These printers are appropriate

for tasks that do not require high-quality images. As its name implies, the dot-matrix printer

produces a series of dots in a matrix to form both characters and images. A print head

containing 9, 18, or 24 tiny pins strikes an inked ribbon to create the dots that make up the

image on paper. The number of pins determines the quality of the output; the greater the

number, the smoother the output.

In the 1980s, business people who wanted better-quality output than a dot-matrix printer

could provide began to use daisy-wheel printers. The printing element of this type of printer

is a round plastic disk that resembles a daisy, with petals protruding from the center. The

“petals” each contain a letter, number, or other character. When printing, the daisy wheel

rotates to bring the desired character into position, and a “hammer” strikes the wheel, forcing

the character to press against an inked ribbon and mark the paper. Daisy-wheel printers do

not produce graphic images.

Thanks to its decreasing cost and very high image quality, the laser printer has become the

44
printer of choice for most microcomputer applications. The laser printer can produce both

characters of any size and high-quality graphic images. A laser beam draws the desired image

on the printer’s metal drum. The drum attracts toner (powdered ink) where the light strikes it,

and the image is transferred from the drum to the paper using heat.

A fourth type of printer used with microcomputers is the ink-jet printer, which produces

letter-quality images by spraying droplets of ink onto the surface of the paper. It has many of

the advantages of the laser printer, including high-quality output and the ability to produce

both characters and graphic images. In addition, ink-jet printers are often less expensive than

laser printers and can produce color images of very good quality.

The resolution quality of both laser printers and ink-jet printers is measured in the number of

dots per inch (dpi) the printer is able to produce when generating characters: the higher the

dpi, the greater the resolution of the characters. The average PC printer today provides 300 to

600 dpi. High-quality laser printers go up to 1200 dpi, while high-quality ink-jet printers

range up to 1440 dpi.

Chain printers are often used with mainframe computers. Chain printers are extremely fast,

producing up to 3,000 lines per minute. A chain with characters on it revolves in front of the

paper; when the desired character passes by, the hammer in that position presses the paper

and inked ribbon against the chain.

45
Figure 2.11: Classification of printers

[Link] Other Output Devices

Plottersare used in some settings to produce architectural drawings, bar charts, and high-

quality graphic images. They often use paper that is larger than most printers can handle.

There are three types of plotters. Pen plotters use colored pens positioned so that a

mechanical arm can access them. The mechanical arm draws the graphic image with one

colored pen, then selects another, repeating the process until the image is complete. Pen

plotters are widely used and produce very high quality images. Electrostatic plotters use

electrostatic charges to create images on specially treated paper. This paper must then be

developed like a photograph to produce high-resolution images. Direct-image plotters, also

called thermal plotters, create images on heat sensitive paper. This process is limited to two-

color output.

Speakers and headsets are the two most common devices used for audio output. A voice

output device produces voice commands by imitating phonic sounds. These prerecorded

phonic sounds produce synthetic-sounding words. Some telephone companies use voice

46
output to automate directory assistance, and some automobiles contain voice output devices

that remind drivers to fasten their seat belts.

Projectors are used to display graphics, text, video output from a computer. In the case of

projectors, the output is displayed onto a screen for an audience to view instead of into a

monitor for a single user's viewing. Like monitors, projectors are attached to the computer

through a parallel port. Projector technology varies widely, but the two most common types

are LCDs projectors and digital light processing (DLP) projectors.

2.5.5 Communication Hardware Devices

It is sometimes helpful to link two or more computers together so that they can communicate

with one another directly without a human intermediary. To accomplish this task, a computer

draws on its communication system. Communications is, thus, the third main function of

which computers are capable, the other two being data storage and data processing.

In order for two or more computers to communicate, specialized hardware is required. First,

the multiple computers must be connected together through transmission media over which

the data are transmitted. Second, there must be communication processors that put the data in

a form that can be transmitted through the transmission media and convert the received

signals into a form the computers can use. Networks are a distinct and highly important

aspect of computer communications but will not be covered in this unit. Unit 4 gives an

overview of networks.

Transmission media can either be physical or wireless. The three most common types of

physical transmission media are discussed next.

 Twisted-pair cable isthe type of wiring used in telephone systems, and transmits data

as electric signals. This is the least expensive media but is the most prone to

47
 interference that can distort the signal.

 Coaxial cable, the type used in cable TV systems, is less likely to distort the signal

being transmitted, but is more expensive. Data is transmitted in electric form.

 Fiber optic cable transmits a signal in the form of light. Fiber optic technology is

much faster, can transmit data at higher rates, and is less prone to interference.

However, it is not widely available and is more expensive.

The two most common types of wireless media are radio signals and microwave signals.

These signals differ in the frequency ranges they cover (referred to as bandwidth), with

microwaves going above 1 GHz and radio signals covering below 1 GHz. Both types of

signals are limited to being line-of-sight (LOS). Because of the curvature of the earth, this

limits signal transmission to a range of approximately 30 miles. To overcome the LOS

problem, repeaters are used to retransmit a signal. Repeaters can either be towers or satellites.

The transmission media have a wide range of transmission speeds (or transfer rates). Table 2

provides the upper end speeds of the media discussed above. These high-end transfer rates

may not be achievable in practice because of the particular technologies in use for

transmitting, receiving, and processing signals.

Table 2: Transfer Rates of Selected Transmission Media

Transmission Medium Upper-end of Transfer Rate

Twisted-pair telephone lines 128 Mbps

Coaxial cable TV lines 200 Mbps

Fiber optics lines 2 Gbps

Radio waves 2 Mbps

Microwave 45 Mbps

48
Mbps (megabits per second) refers to a transfer rate of millions of bits per second and Gbps
(gigabits per second) refers to a transfer rate of billions of bits per second.

Communications processors for PCs are generally referred to as modems (from the term

modulator-demodulator). Most communication systems operate by having the sending

computer’s modem convert (or modulate) the computer’s digital information into analog

format (continuous wave), which is then sent over the transmission medium. The receiving

computer’s modem changes the analog signal back into digital form (demodulation). Some

more current modems do not translate the digital information into analog form. Keeping the

information digital throughout the entire communications process can vastly increase the

transmission speed.

For example, telephone modems use twisted-pair telephone lines and operate by digital-to-

analog modulation. They typically have a maximum transmission speed of 56 Kbps (kilobits

per second; i.e., thousands of bits per second). Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) modems, which

still use ordinary telephone line, remain digital throughout the communications cycle and

have a typical transmission speed of 512 Kbps to 1.544 Mbps. On the other hand, cable

modems, using TV coaxial cable as the transmission medium and advanced digital-to-analog

technology, achieve typical transmission speed of 2.5 Mbps.

Modems can be either internal (built-in) or connected externally. An internal modem can be

installed on an expansion card in the computer. An external modem is connected to the

computer either through a serial port, or a communication port, through which the computer

communicates with the modem one bit at a time.

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 Unit Test

1. Discuss the four different forms of data produced by computer output

devices

2. What is the difference between hardcopy and softcopy?

3. Discuss the specialized hardware required for two or more computers to

Communicate

2.6 Unit Summary

Recall that a computer basically performs five major functions, thus, capturing data,
processing the captured data into information, disseminating information (outputting), storing
or keeping information and communicating to the users. You should be able to relate these
functions with the hardware devices discussed in this unit.

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Unit 3: Computers Software

3.1 Unit Introduction

Welcome to Unit 3: Computer Software. In unit 2 we discussed about hardware and its
associated components together with the functions of those components. You should know
that computer hardware cannot work without software. Hardware and software work hand in
hand. In this unit you will get a general understanding of software. You will also understand
the relationship between hardware and software. You will again learn about the functions of
the computer software.

3.2 Unit Key Terms

Hardware
Software
Operating system
Application software
Instructions

3.3 Objectives
By the end of this unit, students should be able to;

 Describe the software

 Differentiate between a hardware and software
 Differentiate between system software and applications software

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 3.4 Unit Content

3.5 SOFTWARE

A computer system needs more than the hardware described in unit 2 in order to function.
The hardware by itself, even when powered-up, is incapable of producing useful output. It
must be instructed how to direct its operations in order to transform input into output of value
to the user. This is the role of software; that is, to provide the detailed instructions that control
the operation of a computer system. Just as hardware comprises the tangible side of the
computer, so software is the intangible side of the computer. If the CPU is the physical brain
of the computer, then software is its mind.

Software instructions are programmed in a computer language, translated into machine

language, and executed by the computer. Between the user and the hardware (specifically, the
memory), generally stand two layers of software: system software and application software.

3.2. SYSTEM SOFTWARE

System software directly controls the computer’s hardware, whereas application software is
one level removed from hardware. System software manages the computer’s resources,
enables the various components of the computer to communicate, runs application software,
and makes the hardware respond to the user’s needs. When the system software operates
efficiently, the difficult operations of controlling the hardware are transparent to the user.
System software includes four main types:
 The operating system
It provides an interface between the computer hardware and the user or the
application software. Because of its central importance, the operating system will be
discussed in more detail below this unit.
 Language translators
It converts application programs and any other software programs into the machine
language (discussed below) that actually controls the computer's operations.
 Network and communications software
It operates the communication hardware in a computer so that it can transmit and

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 receive information from other computers. Network and communications software
requires two types of software: software for the PC operating system and software for
the network operating system. In some cases, the latter comes built-in the former.
 Utility programs
They perform various specialized "housekeeping" tasks, such as file management,
virus protection, disk defragmentation, program installation and uninstallation, file
and disk back up, disk formatting, and providing screen saver programs. This list is
far from exhaustive. The user directly controls most utility programs, although some
utility programs can be set to run automatically (e.g.; screen savers and anti-virus
scanning).

Computers of all types require system software to coordinate their resources. The system
software for a single-user PC is not nearly as complex as the system software for a multiuser
mainframe computer. However, as the PC’s system capacity has increased, the sophistication
of its system software also has increased. Many of the features once found only in mainframe
and minicomputer systems have been incorporated into PCs.

3.1.2 OPERATING SYSTEMS.

The operating system has two primary functions.

Firstly, it manages the computer's resources—the computer's hardware and any external
devices. For example, the operating system controls the CPU, accesses RAM, executes
programs, receives input from the keyboard or other input device, retrieves and saves data to
and from secondary storage devices, displays data on the monitor, and controls the printer.

Second, the operating system contains instructions for running application software. We will
discuss this later in the same unit 3.

The operating system contains two types of instructions.

 System-resident commands
These are active in primary memory at all times to coordinate input/output requests
and execute programs. This core of the operating system is critical to the functioning
of the computer and is called the kernel. This is the first set of instructions to be
loaded (booted) from secondary storage in the hard disk on to primary memory in

53
 called Random Access Memory (RAM) when the computer is first turned-on.
 Disk-resident commands
These reside in secondary storage until a request is made to execute special-purpose
programs, at which time they are loaded into working memory.

To make microcomputer systems easy to use, the interface (link) between the user and the
hardware has become simpler and more intuitive. Particularly important for the development
of “user-friendly” computers is the graphical user interface (GUI). The GUI allows the user
to interact with the computer through icons (graphic symbols) on the screen. These icons can
represent a variety of things, including computer disks, folders, documents, and software
programs. The user instructs the computer to perform particular tasks by pointing to and
manipulating the appropriate icons with a mouse.

Operating systems not GUI-capable, e.g., UNIX, require the user to input commands by
typing in words or pressing specially defined keys. This set-up is called a command-line
interface.

The computer’s operating system defines the family of additional software—primarily

applications—that the computer can use. For this reason the operating system software is
frequently called the software platform. Most application software is written for one
particular operating system. For example, the user of an IBM-compatible PC with a DOS
operating system must select programs from the available software written for that operating
system. The user of an IBM-compatible PC with an OS/2 operating system must select from a
different set of software. (DOS and OS/2 will be discussed below.) Some applications,
however, are capable of running on multiple operating systems and are referred to as cross-
platform applications.

Application programs can be very large. They might take up many millions of bytes on a
secondary storage device. For this reason, the operating system does not load all of a large
application program into RAM at one time. Instead, it loads only a portion of the application
program; when the program requires other code, it accesses that code from secondary storage.
The operating system’s ability to divide the computer program into variable-length portions
and to store only a small portion at a time in primary memory (RAM) is called virtual
storage. Some operating systems also have virtual memory, which enables a small portion of
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the hard disk to function as additional RAM by storing the portions of the program not being
used in the RAM on the hard disk but in such a fashion that they can be very quickly
accessed (a process called paging).
In addition to managing memory and application programs, operating systems also perform
functions relating to the peripheral devices connected to the computer. For example, the
operating system handles the requests for print jobs sent to the printer. When more print
requests are sent to the printer than can be handled at once, the operating system assigns them
an order and places them in a buffer (an area of memory) awaiting printing. This process is
called spooling.

Another important function of the operating system is that of configuring the external
devices. Each device must communicate to the computer, a process requiring a device to have
its own program, referred to as the device driver. The operating system coordinates the
installation of this software and ensures its proper functioning. These procedures are often
done manually but in some cases the process is automatically performed by the operating
system (called Plug and Play).

Operating systems that allow only one user to run one program at a time are called single
user or single tasking operating systems. Most current operating systems and computers have
moved beyond this stage to multitasking. In multitasking, the operating system allows more
than one task or program to be executed at a time in a single-user computer. Operating
systems that address more memory can run several tasks simultaneously. A computer’s
multitasking capability is also limited by the amount of RAM it contains.

With the advent of networks, much focus has been placed on the multiuser capabilities of
operating systems, although the multiuser environment has long been present in
supercomputers, mainframes and minicomputers. With a mainframe, for example, a thousand
or more users may need to access the computer simultaneously. In all of these architectures,
the operating system must coordinate system requests from many users. The operating system
manages these requests by allocating to each user a portion of primary memory where the
programs reside and executing the programs when an input is received or an output is
requested. Because the processors in supercomputers, mainframes and minicomputers are
extremely fast compared to the speed of input and output, the operating system can handle
many programs in RAM simultaneously. The processor handles a portion of each program in

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series, coordinated by the operating system. This is called multiprogramming.

Another feature of the operating systems in supercomputers, mainframes and minicomputers,

called timesharing, assigns to each user a fraction of the processor’s time. An efficient
operating system controls the multiuser environment in such a way that the user feels as
though he or she is the only person using the computer.

Computers, especially mainframe and minicomputer systems, can also employ

multiprocessing. In this process, the operating system uses more than one processor or CPU
to execute the commands of a single program. The operating system sends instructions to
several processors in parallel, which results in the faster processing of instructions.

There are numerous operating systems. Several of the most popular are discussed below:

 DOS (Disk Operating System)

It is for single-user IBM-compatible computers. Microsoft Corporation sells this
product under the name MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System) and licenses
another version, called PC-DOS, to IBM for use in its personal computers. DOS was
written for the microcomputer technology of the early 1980s. An enormous number of
microcomputers still run under DOS. Even though there have been numerous
improvements to the software since its introduction, limitations still exist. It is not
GUI-capable. Nor can it take full advantage of today's 32-bit processors (e.g., Intel's
Pentium series). That is, application programs running on DOS computers have
direct access to only 640,000 bytes of primary memory.

 Macintosh Operating Systems (Mac OS)

This was introduced around 1984 and was the first commercial GUI platform. The
latest version supports multitasking (which includes multiple Web browsers), and has
built-in networking capability. It is also able to open, edit, and save files created in
DOS and Windows platforms.

 Microsoft Windows
 This is GUI-capable, multitasking operating systems. Windows 95 and 98 have

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 broken the 640,000-byte barrier, providing direct access to millions of bytes of
memory. These operating systems take advantage of today’s more powerful
microprocessor chips, such as the Intel Pentium, which address more memory and
run faster than the older microprocessors. Windows 98 is an upgraded version of
Windows 95. Windows 98 is user-friendlier than Windows 95 and has more Internet
features; e.g., Windows 98 includes Microsoft Internet Explorer. The technology is
still evolving to the fact that Windows has upgraded up to Windows 10 with several
capabilities.

 Microsoft Windows NT
Microsoft Windows NT is designed for client-server networks (discussed in chapter
12). It provides the user with the other features of Windows 98.

 Linux
Linux is an interesting operating system because it is not proprietary software. Its
code has been made publicly available (called open-source software). This allows
users to customize the software to meet their personal needs and to share
improvements made with others. Applications that run on Linux are commercially
available; for example, Red Hat Software and Corel Corporation.

 UNIX
UNIX was developed by Bell Laboratories in the 1970's, and is one of the few small-
scale operating systems that is both multiuser and multiprocessing capable. This
allows computers running on UNIX to process a high volume of inputs from multiple
users by using multiple CPUs simultaneously.

3.4 APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Application software enables the user to direct the computer’s processing system in the tasks
of manipulating and transforming input data into useful output information. Furthermore, it
allows the user to alter the information generated by the processing system; e.g., how the
information is presented. This is the type of software with which most users interact. It is the
usual interface between user and computer. Rarely do users directly manipulate systems
software, especially the operating systems software.

57
Application software can be written for a specific user’s application (custom software), or it
can be mass-produced for general use (commercial or packaged software). Naturally, custom
software is usually far more expensive than commercial software. An accounting package
written for a specific company might cost many thousands of dollars, whereas a commercial
accounting package might cost only a few hundred dollars at a retail store. The advantage of
custom software is that it is tailored to the user’s specific needs and can be seamlessly
integrated into the user’s existing software. Not only is commercial software less costly, it is
also available immediately, and the package can be evaluated before being purchased.

Application software comes in an incredible variety. It is available for business, personal,

educational, communication, and graphic design purposes—to name the more usual
categories. There is almost certainly a software package somewhere available to suit any
need. If not, there are programmers ready to be hired to build it. For our purposes, we will
limit our discussion to the four types of application software most likely to be useful to
accounting and business students: word processing, spreadsheet, database, and presentation
graphics. These four applications are frequently sold together in a single software package.
Three of the most popular packages are Corel Suite, Microsoft Office, and Lotus SmartSuite.
In addition to the four "standard" applications, these packages usually include email, Internet,
video processing, and desktop publishing applications.

Word processing
Word Processing programs allow the user to quickly and easily create and revise texts on the
computer screen. By using word processing applications, the user can format documents with
ease, changing font size, margins, color, etc. Different types of documents—e.g., letters,
memos, and reports—are often preformatted in the application. PC-based word processing
software is so capable and inexpensive that, in most businesses, it has become the usual tool
for creating documents, even when more powerful mainframes and minicomputers are
available.

Spreadsheet programs
These are especially useful in business and accounting. The electronic spreadsheet consists of
rows and columns of data, which the user can easily edit, copy, move, or print. Using
numeric data entered in the spreadsheet, the computer can perform numerous mathematical

58
calculations automatically, many of impressive sophistication (e.g., statistical, logical, and
engineering functions). One of the spreadsheet program’s most powerful features for business
purposes is that it enables the user to do “what-if” analyses on existing data and to input
different data for various scenarios. Non-numeric data (e.g., names and dates) may also be
entered in a spreadsheet. Spreadsheets can perform some non-mathematical operations (e.g.,
sorting and filtering) on this data, although this type of analysis is not a spreadsheet's
strength.

Database software
Database softwares allows the user to enter, store, maintain, retrieve, and manipulate data. In
some ways, databases pick up where spreadsheets leave off, although a fairer assessment is
probably that the relationship between the two types of software is reciprocal. Database
software is certainly more efficient and effective at handling non-numeric data than is
spreadsheet software. Conversely, numeric data is usually easier to manipulate in a
spreadsheet. In most databases, data is entered to tables of rows and columns, similar to
spreadsheets. Unlike spreadsheets, these tables can be connected into relationships that allow
users incredible versatility in what they can do with that data. For example, data—both
numeric and non-numeric—from several individual tables may be retrieved and used together
in calculations, with the results presented in a business-style report.

Presentation graphics software

Presentation softwares enable users to design professional-quality presentations for business
and educational purposes. The presentations usually consist of formatted slides for projecting
onto a screen from a computer projector or overhead projector, or for display on a large
monitor. These presentations may also be used for online meetings and Web broadcasts. The
slides can be designed to include backgrounds, graphic images, charts, clipart, shading,
animation, and audio effects—and, of course, text, which can sometimes get lost in all of the
embellishments.

3.5 COMPUTER LANGUAGES AND LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS

Computer programmers use artificial languages, known as programming languages, to write

the instructions that tell computers what to do. Programming languages have evolved over

59
time to become more like the natural languages that human beings speak. This section traces
the evolution from machine language to fifth-generation language.

3.5.1 MACHINE LANGUAGE.

Programs for the first computers were written in strings of binary digits ("bits," consisting of
0s and 1s). Thus, this first programming language is often referred to as the first-generation
language (or 1GL). It is also called the machine language because computers—past and
present—require this type of instruction in order to perform their operations as machines.
Instructions (and data) are represented ultimately as bits because these strings of 0s and 1s
correspond to the actual binary on-off flow of electrical current through the computer's
circuitry. Because machine language is so far removed from natural language, it has a number
of inherent problems as a programming language. It is time-consuming and tedious for
humans to work in machine language, and errors in machine-language programs are difficult
to find.

3.5.2 ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE.

Assembly language (also referred to as the second-generation language or 2GL) was the next
step in the evolution of programming languages. In assembly language, commands are
written with mnemonic codes rather than numerical codes. These commands are translated
from the source language (the programmer’s code) into an object module (machine
language). The translation process can be done in two ways. Either an interpreter converts the
program line by line as it is being run, or a compiler converts the entire program at one time
before it is run. Interpreters are often used with beginning programmers who are learning a
language for the first time. Compilers are used in professional settings where speed and
security are important.
Interpreters and compilers are operating system programs that fall under the general category
of language translators. Each programming language requires a specific language translator to
convert it to machine language.
Assembly languages are specific to a particular processor and give the programmer control
over the lower-level operations of the computer. Compared to third-generation languages,
discussed next, assembly language requires more detail in programming.

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3.5.3 THIRD-GENERATION LANGUAGES.

The evolution of programming languages toward user-friendliness continued with the

development of third-generation languages (3GL). Third-generation languages, such as
FORTRAN, COBOL, Pascal, Java, PL/1, and C, are procedural languages. Program
instructions are executed in a precise sequence to accomplish a task. These languages use
recognizable statements like PRINT, INPUT, SORT, and IF, which must be compiled into
detailed machine language instructions. The linkage editor inserts pre-written routines called
library programs after compilation to produce an executable program called the load module.
BASIC (Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) was designed as a programming
language for novices. The language uses an interpreter that evaluates each line for syntax
errors, which helps beginning programmers. The language became very popular for
microcomputer use in the late 1970s and early 1980s.

FORTRAN (Formula Translation) was developed in 1956 to provide scientists, engineers, and
mathematicians a programming language that is rich in scientific and mathematical
operations.

COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) was designed for such business applications
as inputting records from a data file and manipulating, storing, and printing them. A
tremendous number of programs have been written in COBOL since its inception in the early
1960s. COBOL still maintains a significant presence. Each business day, billions of lines of
COBOL code are executed.

IBM developed PL/1 (Programming Language 1) in 1964. This language combines the
mathematical features found in FORTRAN with the record-processing features found in
COBOL.

Pascal was written to take advantage of the programming technique called structured
programming, in which programs are divided into modules that are controlled by a main
module. The language was very popular in the 1980s for teaching structured programming
and advanced programming techniques in computer science courses.

In the 1970s, AT&T Bell Labs developed a programming language called C that could be run

61
on various types of computers. Source code written for a microcomputer could thus easily be
converted into source code for a mainframe.

Java was developed in the mid-1990s by Sun Microsystems. It is based on a new

programming technique called object-oriented programming. Object-oriented programming
allows the programmer to define not only the characteristics of data but also the data's
associated procedures. This type of programming is especially beneficial in a networked
environment because it allows computers to quickly transmit computations to each other, not
just data requiring subsequent computation.

3.5.4 FOURTH-GENERATION LANGUAGES.

The development of applications written in third-generation languages takes a considerable

amount of time, often several months to several years. Increasingly users need software that
allows them to develop simple applications quickly. Fourth-generation languages (4GL)
were developed to meet this need. They are declarative, not procedural, languages. With the
earlier generations of procedural languages, the user/programmer had to delineate the step-
by-step procedures for the computer to follow to achieve a certain result. With fourth-
generation language, however, the user simply tells the computer what end result is desired
and the computer to decide the steps needed to achieve that goal. Also, fourth generation
languages have been designed to be easy to learn and use. In addition, they relieve
professional programmers from increasing demands to develop new programs and maintain
existing ones.

Fourth-generation languages are found in a variety of applications, including statistical

packages, data base management systems, and graphical packages. Statistical packages
perform a full range of statistical analyses and enable the user to produce reports of the
results. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) and Statistical Analysis System
(SAS) are examples of powerful statistical packages that are available on mainframe
computers, minicomputers, and microcomputers.

Data base management systems usually contain a 4GL query language that allows the user to
retrieve data from and store data to the database. Relational data base management systems
have been standardized on a query language called Structured Query Language (SQL). By

62
using either a menu-driven interface or simple commands, the end user can develop advanced
queries to the database without a programmer’s assistance.

3.5.5 FIFTH-GENERATION LANGUAGES.

Fifth-generation languages (5GL) are attempting to make the task of programming even user-
friendlier than did the 4GLs. This is achieved by removing most of the verbal aspects from
programming. Instead, 5GLs use a visual or graphical environment that allows the user to
design the program with minimal use of programming words. For example, visual
programming allows the user to drag icons together in a windows environment in order to
assemble a program component. The 5GL development interface then automatically creates
the source language that is typically compiled with a 3GL or 4GL language compiler.
Enabling users to design something as complex as a computer program by means of graphical
symbols is a difficult undertaking. Not all attempts at developing a workable 5GL have been
successful. Currently, however, Microsoft, Borland and IBM make 5GL visual programming
products for developing Java applications that appear successful. The amazing evolution of
computer languages from strings of 0s and 1s to graphical icons says a lot about the ability of
computers to inspire us with creativity and genius.
Unit Test
1. Choose a computer and switch it on. What operating system does it use?
What version? What software applications are being run on the computer?
2. Many computers are attached to printers and there are many reasons to print
out documents that you create on your computer. Most software programs
and applications allow the user to print the information that is created in the
program. Please retrieve the file you created in task 1, and print it.
3. What application packages are available? Name each one of them and the
function it performs.
4. In order to save a new document or file you must first choose the Save
command. Most modern software place this command in a menu which you
access with the mouse button or Alt key. Each file must be given a filename
so it can be found easily the next time it is needed. Please create a simple
file and save it’s that it can be retrieved next time.
5. What utility programs have you managed to identify in this computer.
Briefly describe the use of each one of them.

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 3.11 Unit Summary

Software instructions are programmed in a computer language, translated into machine

language, and executed by the computer. Between the user and the hardware (specifically, the
memory), generally stand two layers of software: system software and application software.
System software directly controls the computer’s hardware, whereas application software is
one level removed from hardware. System software manages the computer’s resources,
enables the various components of the computer to communicate, runs application software,
and makes the hardware respond to the user’s needs.
Operating systems manages computer resources and are of 2 types; system resident
commands and disk resident commands. Operating systems could be single user of multi-
tasking. Examples include DOS, Mac OS and Windows.

Application software enables the user to direct the computer’s processing system in the tasks
of manipulating and transforming input data into useful output information. Application
software can be written for a specific user’s application (custom software), or it can be mass-
produced for general use (commercial or packaged software). Naturally, custom software is
usually far more expensive than commercial software. Application software is available for
business, personal, educational, communication, and graphic design purposes. These include
word processing, spreadsheet, database, and presentation graphics. Computer programmers
use artificial languages, known as programming languages, to write the instructions that tell
computers what to do. There are second, third, fourth and 5th generation languages available
today.

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Unit 4: Computer Networking

4.1 Unit Introduction

Welcome to Unit 4: Computer Networking. One of the advantages of computers described

in unit 1 is to facilitate communication. Communication using computers has brought a
revolution in the world of computer technology. You have always heard of networking or
the term network. In this unit we will therefore let you understand the network. We will
again provide the advantages of a network. Further, we will talk of the classification of a
network as well as network topologies or structures.

4.2 Unit Key Terms

Ensure that you understand the key terms or phrases used in this unit as listed below.
 Network
 Server
 Nodes
 LAN
 MAN
 WAN
 STAR Topology
 Ring Topology
 Bus Topology

4.3 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Describe the network

 Explain the purpose and advantages of a network
 State classification of networks
 Discuss network topologies or structures

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 4.4 Unit Content

4.5 Computer Networking

Recall from unit 1 that one of the categories of computer hardware devices is to facilitate
communication services. Two or more computers are linked together with a medium and data
communication devices. A network is a collection of computers and devices connected
together via communications devices and transmission media. Usually, the connections
between computers in a network are made using physical wires or cables. However, some
connections are wireless, using radio waves or infrared signals. Many businesses network
their computers together to facilitate communications, share hardware, share data and
information, share software, and transfer funds. A network can be internal to an organization
or span the world by connecting to the Internet.

4.6 Advantages of networking

The following are some of the advantages of using a network.

4.6.1 Facilitating communications

By using a network, people communicate efficiently and easily via e-mail, instant messaging,
chat roo ms, blogs, wikis, online social networks, video telephone calls, online meetings,
video conferencing, VoIP, wireless messaging services, and groupware. Some of these
communications, such as e-mail, occur within a business’s internal network. Other times,
they occur globally over the Internet as discussed in unit 5.

4.6.2 Sharing hardware

In a networked environment, each computer on the network can have access to hardware on
the network.
Business and home users network their hardware to save money. That is, it may be too costly
to provide each user with the same piece of hardware such as a printer. If the computers and a
laser printer are connected to a network, the computer users each access the laser printer on
the network, as they need it.

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4.6.3 Sharing data and information

In a networked environment, any authorized computer user can access data and information
stored on other computers on the network. A large company, for example, might have a
database of customer information. Any authorized person, including a mobile user with a
smart phone or other device connected to the network, has access to the database.

4.6.4 Sharing software

Users connected to a network have access to software on the network. To support multiple
users’ access of software, most vendors sell network versions or site licenses of their
software, which usually cost less than buying individual copies of the software for each
computer. A network license is a legal agreement that allows multiple users to access the
software on a server simultaneously. The network license fee usually is based on the number
of users or the number of computers attached to the network. A site license is a legal
agreement that permits users to install the software on multiple computers — usually at a
volume discount.

4.6.5 Transferring funds

Transferring funds called electronic funds transfer (EFT), allows users connected to a
network to transfer money from one bank account to another via transmission media. Both
businesses and consumers use EFT.

Consumers use an ATM to access their bank account. Businesses deposit payroll checks
directly in employees’ bank accounts. Consumers use credit cards to make purchases from a
retail Web site. Businesses use EFT to purchase and pay for goods purchased from vendors.
Both businesses and consumers pay bills online, with which they instruct a bank to use EFT
to pay creditors.

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Figure 4.1: Reasons why businesses use networks

.
The computer that provides resources to other computers on a network is known as a server.
Individual computers in the network, which access shared network resources, are known as
nodes.

4.7 Classification of Networks

Networks usually are classified as a local area network, metropolitan area network, or wide
area network. The main differentiation among these classifications is their area of coverage,
as described below.

4.7.1 Local Area Networks (LAN)

A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited
geographical area such as a home, school computer laboratory, office building or closely
positioned group of buildings. Each computer or device on the network, called a node, often
shares resources such as printers, large hard disks, and programs. Often, the nodes are
connected via cables.
There also exists a wireless LAN (WLAN) which is a LAN that uses no physical wires.
Computers and devices that access a wireless LAN must have built-in wireless capability or

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the appropriate wireless network card, USB network adapter, ExpressCard module, PC Card,
or flash card.
Very often, a WLAN communicates with a wired LAN for access to its resources, such as
software, hardware, and the Internet as described earlier in this unit.

4.7.2 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

MAN is a high-speed network that connects local area networks in a metropolitan area such
as a city or town and handles the bulk of communications activity across that region. A MAN
typically includes one or more LANs, but covers a smaller geographic area than a WAN. A
MAN usually is managed by a consortium of users or by a single network provider that sells
the service to the users. Local and state governments, for example, regulate some MANs.
Telephone companies, cable television operators, and other organizations provide users with
connections to the MAN.

4.7.3 Wide Area Networks (WAN)

WAN is a network that covers a large geographic area such as a city, country, or the world
using a communications channel that combines many types of media such as telephone lines,
cables, and radio waves. A WAN can be one large network or can consist of two or more
LANs connected together. The Internet is the world’s largest WAN. We have discussed more
of internet issues in unit 5.

WAN contains machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs. We will
follow traditional usage and call these machines hosts. The term end system is sometimes
also used in the literature. The hosts are connected by a communication subnet, or just
subnet for short. The job of the subnet is to carry messages from host to host, just as the
telephone system carries words from speaker to listener. By separating the pure
communication aspects of the network (the subnet) from the application aspects (the hosts),
the complete network design is greatly simplified.

4.8 Network Topologies

A network topology refers to the physical layout of the network in which all the devices are
connected. This includes all the hardware that makes up the network. The points of the
connection to the network by the station are called Nodes or Link stations. There are several

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types of topographical designs. The majority of these are based on three types of topologies;
Star, Bus and Ring topologies. Each topology has its advantages & disadvantages.

4.8.1 Star Topology

Star topology is shown in figure 4.2. On a star network, all of the computers and devices
(nodes) on the network connect to a central device, thus forming a star. Two types of devices
that provide a common central connection point for nodes on them network are a hub and a
switch. All data that transfers from one node to another, passes through the hub or switch.

Star networks are fairly easy to install and maintain. Nodes can be added to and removed
from the network with little or no disruption to the network.

On a star network, if one node fails, only that node is affected and is easier to detect and can
be removed from the network. The other nodes continue to operate normally. If the hub or
switch fails, however, the entire network is inoperable until the device is repaired (failure of
the central controller will disable communication throughout the whole network).

NODE NODE

NODE

NODE NODE

Figure 4.2: Star Topology

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4.8.2 Bus Topology
A bus network consists of a single central cable, to which all computers and other devices
connect. The bus is the physical cable that connects the computers and other devices. The bus
in a bus network transmits data, instructions, and information in both directions. When a
sending device transmits data, the address of the receiving device is included with the
transmission so that the data is routed to the appropriate receiving device.

Bus networks are popular on LANs because they are inexpensive and easy to install. One
advantage of the bus network is that computers and other devices can be attached and
detached at any point on the bus without disturbing the rest of the network. Another
advantage is that failure of one device usually does not affect the rest of the bus network. The
greatest risk to a bus network is that the bus itself might become inoperable. If that happens,
the network remains inoperative until the bus is back in working order.

An extension to the bus topology is tree topology. Tree topology extends the branches of the
bus topology allowing more stations to access the bus.

NODE NODE NODE NODE

Figure 4.3: Bus Topology

4.8.3 Ring Topology

On a ring network, a cable forms a closed loop (ring) with all computers and devices
arranged along the ring (Figure 4.4). Data transmitted on a ring network travels from device
to device around the entire ring, in one direction. When a computer or device sends data, the
data travels to each computer on the ring until it reaches its destination.

Each station attached and active to the ring regenerate the information frame, then retransmits
the information frame on the ring. The ring itself is logically circle and the information
travels in one direction.

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If a computer or device on a ring network fails, the entire network potentially could stop
functioning. A ring network can span a larger distance than a bus network, but it is more
difficult to install. The ring topology primarily is used for LANs, but also is used in WANs.

NODE

NODE
NODE

NODE

Figure 4.4: Ring Topology

Failure of a station in a ring topology disrupts the ring because the information frame is not
regenerated. Additions or deletions of stations of the ring can be disruptive, if the changes are
not managed properly.

4.9 Intranets and Extranet

4.9.1 Intranets

Recognizing the efficiency and power of the Internet, many organizations apply Internet and
Web technologies to their internal networks. An intranet (intra means within) is an internal
network that uses Internet technologies. Intranets generally make company information
accessible to employees and facilitate working in groups. Simple intranet applications include
electronic publishing of organizational materials such as telephone directories, event
calendars, procedure manuals, employee benefits information, and job postings. Additionally,
an intranet typically includes a connection to the Internet. More sophisticated uses of
intranets include groupware applications such as project management, chat rooms, group
scheduling, and video conferencing. An intranet essentially is a small version of the Internet
that exists within an organization. It has a Web server, supports Web pages containing
multimedia, and is accessible via a Web browser such as Internet Explorer, Firefox, Opera,
Safari, and Google Chrome. Users update information on the intranet by creating and posting
a Web page, using a method similar to that used on the Internet

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4.9.2 Extranet

Sometimes a company uses an extranet, which allows customers or suppliers to access part of
its intranet. Package shipping companies, for example, allow customers to access their
intranet to print air bills, schedule pickups, and even track shipped packages as the packages
travel to their destinations.

Unit Test 4.1

1. How are a Star Network, Bus Network, and Ring Network Different?
2. Define a network.
3. What Are the Advantages of Using a Network?
4. How Are LANs, MANs, and WANs Different?

4.10 Unit Summary

This chapter provided an overview of communications terminology and applications. It also

discussed how to join computers into a network, allowing them to communicate and share
resources such as hardware, software, data, and information. It also explained various
communications devices, media, and procedures as they relate to computers.

Answers to unit test 4.1

1. A network topology refers to the layout of computers and devices in a communications

network. Three commonly used network topologies are the star, bus, and ring. On a star
network, all computers and devices on the network connect to a central device, thus
forming a star. A bus network consists of a single central cable to which all computers and
other devices connect. On a ring network, a cable forms a closed loop (ring) with all
computers and devices arranged along the ring

2. A network is a collection of computers and devices connected together via

communications devices and transmission media.

3. Advantages of using a network include facilitating communications, sharing hardware,

sharing data and information, sharing software, and transferring funds.

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4. Networks typically are classified as a local area network (LAN), which connects
computers in devices in a limited geographical area; a metropolitan area network (MAN),
which is a high-speed network that connects local area networks in a larger area, such as
city or town; or a wide area network (WAN), which covers a large geographic area using
a communications channel that combines many types of media.

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Unit 5: The Internet and World Wide Web

5.1 Unit Introduction

After you have learnt about networking, it is now time to learn about the Internet and the
World Wide Web. The Network is the backbone of the Internet. Welcome therefore to unit 5,
The Internet and World Wide Web. This unit introduces one of the most significant
innovations of the past half century – the Internet. Here the Internet is defined, and the history
of the Internet is detailed. From this unit, you will discover how the Internet works and learn
about Internet service providers and online services, connecting to the Internet, how data
travels in the Internet, and Internet addresses. The World Wide Web, search engines, and
multimedia on the Web are also explained. You become familiar with Webcasting, electronic
commerce, Web publishing, and other Internet services including e-mail, FTP, Telnet,
newsgroups, mailing lists, chat rooms, instant messaging and VOIP. Finally, netiquette, the
Internet code of acceptable behaviour by users, is described.

5.2 Unit Key Terms

Ensure that you understand the key terms or phrases used in this unit as listed below.
Internet
URL
Web page
WWW
Webcasting
E-commerce
E-mail,
FTP,
Newsgroups

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 5.3 Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Discuss how the Internet works

 Understand ways to access the Internet
 Identify a URL
 Search for information on the Web
 Describe the types of Web pages
 Recognize how Web pages use graphics, animation, audio, video, and virtual reality
 Define Webcasting
 Describe the uses of electronic commerce (e-commerce)
 Explain how e-mail, FTP, newsgroups and message boards, mailing lists, chat rooms,
and instant messaging work
 Identify the rules of netiquette

5.4 Unit Content

5.4.1 How the Internet works

The Internet has had a profound effect on the world of computers. Microsoft Chief Executive
Officer, Bill Gates claims, “The Internet is inescapable in everything we are doing.” The
Internet also has assumed an increasing prominence in the world at large. It is described as a
worldwide collection of networks that links millions of businesses, government offices,
educational institutions, and individuals.
Data is transferred over the internet using servers, which are computers that manage network
resources and provide centralized storage areas, and clients, which are computers that can
access the contents of the storage areas. The data travels over communications lines. Each
computer or device on a communications line has a numeric address called an IP (Internet
protocol) address, the text version of which is called a domain name. Every time you specify
a domain name, a DNS (domain name system) server translates the domain name into its
associated IP address, so data can route to the correct computer.

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Today, the letters “www” seem an omnipresent part of advertisements on buses, billboards,
and magazines.

5.4.2 Ways to access the Internet

You can access the Internet through an Internet service provider, an online service provider,
or a wireless service provider.

An Internet service provider (ISP) provides temporary Internet connections to

individuals and companies.

An online service provider (OSP) also supplies Internet access, in addition to

a variety of special content and services.

A wireless service provider (WSP) provides wireless Internet access to users

with wireless modems or Web-enabled handheld computers or devices.

Employees and students often connect to the Internet through a business or school network
that connects to a service provider. For home or small business users, dial-up access provides
an easy and inexpensive way to connect to the Internet.

With dial-up access, you use a computer, a modem, and a regular telephone line to dial into
an ISP or OSP. Some home and small business users opt for newer, high-speed technologies.

DSL (digital subscriber line) provides high-speed connections over a

regular copper telephone line.

A cable modem provides high-speed Internet connections through a cable

television network.

5.5 The URL and World Wide Web

The most widely used service on the Internet is the World Wide Web. The World Wide Web
(WWW or Web) consists of a worldwide collection of electronic documents called Web
pages. A browser is a software program used to access and view Web pages. Each Web page
has a unique address, called a URL (Uniform Resource Locator) that tells a browser where to
locate the Web page. A URL consists of a protocol, domain name, and sometimes the path to
a specific Web page or location on a Web page. Most URLs begin with [Link] which stands
for hypertext transfer protocol, the communications standard that enables pages to transfer on
the Web.

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On a Web page there can be a link. A link is a built-in connection to another related Web
page or part of a Web page. A link can be a word, phrase, or image. URLs make it possible to
navigate using links, because each link is connected to a URL. When you click a link, the
Web site or document associated with the URL is displayed. Some people refer to this
activity of jumping from one Web page to another as surfing the Web.

URLs are registered for a standard fee. To acquire an appropriate URL, some companies are
willing to spend a great deal more for a URL that already has been registered.

5.6 Searching for information on the Web

The World Wide Web is an incredible source of information on almost any topic. There are
billions of Web pages. Exploring this vast reservoir for the answer to a search engine user’s
query, which usually is expressed in just a few keywords. This is a daunting task.

Often, simple search queries yield an overwhelming number of results. This is attributed to
several factors including the following:

The limitations of search engines. A query about mustangs on the American plains might
produce results involving Southern Methodist University's football team and the Ford car.

The nature of queries. While a traditional researcher, such as a librarian, uses queries
averaging 14 words, the typical Internet query is just over one word.

The creators of Web pages. Developers of commercial Web pages sometimes distort results
by repeating frequently requested keywords in the background, where spiders see them but
people do not.

Despite these difficulties, search engines are among the most popular sites on the Web. When
choosing a search engine, experts suggest that novice users, and users looking for obscure
information, turn first to the larger search engines (AltaVista, Yahoo!, Lycos, and so on)
because they are easiest to use and cast the largest net.

A search engine is a software program you can use to find Web sites, Web pages, and
Internet files. To find a Web page or pages, you enter a relevant word or phrase, called search
text or keywords, in the search engine’s text box. Many search engines then use a program
called a spider to read pages on Web sites and create a list of pages that contain the
keywords. Any Web page that is listed as the result of the search is called a hit. Each hit is a
link that can be clicked to display the associated Web site or Web page.

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5.7 Types of Web pages

There are six basic types of Web pages.

5.7.1 Advocacy Web page contains content that describes a cause, opinion, or idea.
Advocacy Web pages established for political candidates, called “e-campaigning,”
has become an important part of politics.

5.7.2 Business/marketing Web page contains content that promotes or sells products or
services. Business/marketing Web pages used for shopping on the Internet are
increasingly popular.
5.7.3 Informational Web page contains factual information. Educational institutions
frequently publish informational Web pages. Today, most colleges have Web sites
that offer course descriptions, information about the student population, and
registration costs and deadlines
5.7.4 News Web page contains newsworthy material including stories and articles relating
to current events, life, money, sports, and the weather. News Web pages are the most
popular Web sites among Americans with access to the Internet. Although these Web
sites often are associated with newspapers, magazines, television stations, or radio
stations, some are published only online, without a related print or broadcast media.
We also have online websites in Malawi like Nation online and Nyasatimes.
5.7.5 Portal Web page offers a variety of Internet services from a single, convenient
location. Portal Web pages often offer the following free services: search engine,
news, sports and weather, free personal Web pages, reference tools, shopping malls,
e-mail, instant messaging, newsgroups, and chat rooms. The dictionary defines a
“portal” as a door or gateway. Portal Web pages are gateways to a host of services.
5.7.6 Personal Web page is maintained by a private individual who normally is not
associated with any organization. Personal Web pages sometimes use Web cams to
provide minute-by-minute views of life in a dorm room, an apartment. Visitors of a
personal web page often develop a sort of “relationship” with the Web page
developer.
5.8 How Web pages use graphics, animation, audio, video, and virtual reality

Many exciting Web pages use multimedia. Multimedia refers to any application that
integrates text with one of the following elements: graphics, sound, video, virtual reality, or
other media elements.

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Multimedia can bring a Web page to life, increase the types of information available on the
Web, expand on the Web’s potential uses, and make the Internet a more entertaining place to
explore. Because Web pages with multimedia take longer to download, most browsers allow
users to turn off some multimedia elements (such as graphics) and show a text-only version,
speeding the display of a Web page.
A graphic is a digital representation of information such as a drawing, chart, or photograph.
Two common file formats for graphical images on the Web are JPEG (Joint Photographic
Experts Group) and GIF (Graphics Interchange Format), which use compression techniques
to reduce the size of graphics files and thus speed downloading.

Animation is the appearance of motion created by displaying a series of still images in rapid
sequence. One popular type of animation, called an animated GIF, uses computer animation
and graphics software to combine several images into a single GIF file.

Audio is music, speech, or any other sound. A common format for audio files on the Web is
MP3, a popular technology that compresses audio. More advanced Web audio applications
use streaming audio, which transfers audio data in a continuous and even flow, allowing users
to listen to the sound as it downloads.

Video consists of full-motion images that are played back at various speeds. Video files often
are quite large in size. The Moving Pictures Experts Group (MPEG) defines a popular video
compression standard. Streaming video allows you to view longer or live video images as
they are downloaded.

Virtual reality (VR) is the use of computers to simulate a real or imagined environment that
appears as a three-dimensional (3-D) space. A VR world is an entire 3-D site that contains
infinite space and depth.

Student Activity 5.1

o Discuss how the Internet works
o Understand ways to access the Internet
o What is a URL
o Describe the types of Web pages

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5.9 Webcasting

Pull technology is a method of obtaining information that relies on a client such as your
computer to request a Web page from a server. On the other hand, Webcasting, also called
push technology, is a method of obtaining information in which a server automatically
downloads content to your computer at regular intervals or whenever updates are made to the
site. Webcasting saves time by delivering information at regular intervals and allows users to
view Web content when they are offline, that is, when they are not connected to the Internet.

5.10 The uses of electronic commerce (e-commerce)

Electronic commerce (e-commerce) is a financial business transaction that occurs over an

electronic network such as the Internet. Today, more than 50 percent of Web sites are
commercial. There are three types of e-commerce currently.

Business to consumer (B-to-B or B2C) e-commerce consists of the sale of goods to the
general public. Customers visit an online business through an electronic storefront, which
contains descriptions, graphics, and a shopping cart that allows customers to collect their
purchases.

Consumer to consumer (C-to-C or C2C) e-commerce occurs when one consumer sells
directly to another. An online auction is an example of consumer to consumer e-commerce.

Business to business (B-to-B or B2B) e-commerce, which is the most prevalent type of e-
commerce, takes place between businesses, with businesses typically providing services to
other businesses.

Business to consumer e-commerce often allows buyers to purchase directly

from businesses, eliminating the middleman and thus providing goods and
services at lower costs. Other advantages of e-commerce include:

 Twenty-four hour access

 Global presence
 Two-way communication
 Decreased costs
 Lower product display and storage costs
 Reduced salesperson costs

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Businesses advertise with their own Web site or on another company’s Web site. The most
successful Web advertisements are on popular sites, such as search engines. In terms of
audience, advertising on the Web is expensive.

5.11 E-mail, FTP, newsgroups and message boards, mailing lists, chat rooms, and
instant messaging work

A variety of services are used widely on the Internet, including e-mail, FTP, newsgroups and
message boards, mailing lists, chat rooms, and instant messaging.

E-mail (electronic mail) is the transmission of messages and files via a computer network.
You use an e-mail program to create, send, receive, forward, store, print, and delete
messages. To receive messages, you need an e-mail address, which is a combination of a
username and a domain name that identifies a user.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is an Internet standard that allows you to upload and
download files with other computers on the Internet. An FTP server is a computer that allows
you to use FTP to upload files to, and download files from, an FTP site. With anonymous
FTP, anyone can transfer some, if not all, available files.

A newsgroup is an online area in which users conduct written discussions about a particular
subject. The computer that stores and distributes newsgroup messages is called a news server.
You use a program called a newsreader to access a newsgroup, read previously entered
messages (called articles), and add (post) messages of your own. A thread consists of the
original article and all subsequent related replies. In a moderated newsgroup, a moderator
reviews articles and posts them, if appropriate.

A message board is a popular Web-based type of discussion group that does not require a
newsreader and typically is easier to use than a newsgroup.

A mailing list is a group of e-mail names and addresses given a single name. To add your e-
mail name and address to a mailing list you subscribe to it; to remove your name, you
unsubscribe.

A chat is real-time (meaning everyone involved in the chat is online at the same time) typed
conversation that takes place on a computer. A location on an Internet server that permits
users to chat is called a chat room. Some chat rooms support voice chats and video chats,

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where you can hear or see others and they can hear or see you as you chat. A chat client is a
program on your computer that allows you to connect to a chat server and start a chat session.

Instant messaging (IM) is a real-time Internet communications service that notifies you
when one or more people are online and then allows you to exchange messages or join a
private chat room.

Figure 5.1: Users can send and receive text messages, picture/video messages, and wireless
instant messages to and from their smart phones and other computers and devices.

5.12 Rules of netiquette

Netiquette, which is short for Internet etiquette, is the code of acceptable behaviours users
should follow while on the Internet. Rules for e-mail, newsgroups, and chat rooms include:

 Keep messages brief and use proper grammar and spelling.

 Be careful when using mockery or mockery and humour or comedy.
 Be polite and avoid offensive language.
 Avoid sending flames (abusive messages) and spam (unsolicited junk mail).
 Do not use all capital letters, which is the equivalent of SHOUTING!
 Use emoticons (such as :) for smile) to express emotion.

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 Use abbreviations (such as BTW for by the way) for popular phrases.
 Clearly identify a spoiler, which is a message that reveals a solution to a game or an
ending to a movie or program.
 Read the FAQ (frequently asked questions) document.
 Do not assume all material is accurate or up-to-date.
 Never read someone’s private e-mail.

5.13 History of the Internet

The Internet has its roots in a networking project started by the Pentagon’s Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA), an agency of the U.S. Department of Defense. ARPA’s
goal was to build a network that (1) allowed scientists at different physical locations to share
information and work together on military and scientific projects and (2) could function even
if part of the network were disabled or destroyed by a disaster such as a nuclear attack. That
network, called ARPANET, became functional in September 1969, linking scientific and
academic researchers across the United States.

The original ARPANET consisted of four main computers, one each located at the University
of California at Los Angeles, the University of California at Santa Barbara, the Stanford
Research Institute, and the University of Utah. Each of these computers served as a host on
the network. A host, more commonly known today as a server, is any computer that provides
services and connections to other computers on a network. Hosts often use high-speed
communications to transfer data and messages over a network.

As researchers and others realized the great benefit of using ARPANET to share data and
information, ARPANET underwent phenomenal growth. By 1984, ARPANET had more than
1,000 individual computers linked as hosts. Today, more than 550 million hosts connect to
the Internet. Some organizations connected entire networks to ARPANET to take advantage
of its high-speed communications.

In 1986, the National Science Foundation (NSF) connected its huge network of five
supercomputer centres, called NSFnet, to ARPANET. This configuration of complex
networks and hosts became known as the Internet.

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Until 1995, NSFnet handled the bulk of the communications activity, or traffic, on the
Internet. In 1995, NSFnet terminated its network on the Internet and resumed its status as a
research network. Today, the Internet consists of many local, regional, national, and
international networks. Numerous corporations, commercial firms, and other companies such
as IBM provide networks to handle Internet traffic. Both public and private organizations
own networks on the Internet. These networks, along with telephone companies such as
Verizon and AT&T, cable and satellite companies, and the government, all contribute toward
the internal structure of the Internet. Each organization on the Internet is responsible only for
maintaining its own network. No single person, company, institution, or government agency
controls or owns the Internet. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), however, oversees
research and sets standards and guidelines for many areas of the Internet. The mission of the
W3C is to contribute to the growth of the Web. More than 350 organizations from around the
world are members of the W3C, advising, defining standards, and addressing other issues.

Unit Test 5.2

1. Discuss how Web pages use graphics, animation, audio, video, and virtual
reality
2. Define Webcasting
2. Describe the uses of electronic commerce (e-commerce)
3. Explain how the following works;
a. e-mail,
b. FTP,
c. Newsgroups and message boards,
d. Mailing lists,
e. Chat rooms, and
f. Instant messaging work

5.10 Unit Summary

From this unit, you have learnt that the Internet is a worldwide collection of networks that
links millions of businesses, government offices, educational institutions, and individuals.
You also learnt that you can access the Internet through an Internet service provider, an
online service provider, or a wireless service provider.

You now know that the most widely used service on the Internet is the World Wide Web
which consists of a worldwide collection of electronic documents called Web pages. In the
unit, I talked about the browser as a software program used to access and view Web pages.
Each Web page has a unique address, called a URL (Uniform Resource Locator) that tells a
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browser where to locate the Web page. Can you recall the uses of electronic commerce also
discussed in this unit?

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