Chapter 2

Teaching and Assessment:

The Instructional Process
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Overview of Chapter 2

TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT

l
Models Connecting Assessment with Teaching:
• The "Time-Restricted Model"
• The "Continuous-Feedback Model"
• The "Integrated Assessment Model"

~
The Instructional Process

Planning Instruction
• Purposes
• Lesson Plans
Delivering Assessing
• Teacher-Made vs .
Instruction Instruction
Publisher-
Developed • Assessment During • Formative
Assessments ~ Instruction r--+ Assessment
• Educational • Summative
Objectives Assessment
• Domains of
Objectives
• Writing
Objectives
Copyright 2017. Routledge.

21

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 22 PART I INTRODUCTION TO CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

INTRODUCTION MODELS CONNECTING ASSESSMENT

WITH TEACHING
As you know from the previous chapter,
assessment is an integral part of teaching. There are three explicit models of the re-
Classroom teachers are required to make lationship between teaching and assess-
a wide variety of decisions on a continu- ment (Gredler, 1999). These models are
ing basis, throughout the day, the week, very important because they not only de-
and the school year. Information resulting scribe the nature of this relationship from
from various assessments is necessary in varying perspectives but also ultimately
order for teachers to carry out this deci- direct teachers in how to approach the
sion-making process. It is crucial for all task of teaching within their individual
teachers to be cognizant of the interrela- classrooms. These three models are the
tionships among assessment and the vari- time-restricted model, the continuous-
ous aspects of teaching. In this chapter, feedback model, and the integrated as-
three models explaining the integration of sessment model.
assessment and teaching are presented.
The discussions include the relative The "Time-Restricted Model"
strengths and limitations of each model. The time-restricted model of teaching and
The entire instructional process is then assessment is prevalent at the high school
and, in particular, the college levels
closely examined, with the discussion fo-
cusing on the three main aspects of the (Gredler, 1999). The key characteristic of
instructional process, namely planning for this model is that assessment occurs only
instruction, delivering instruction, and following the completion of instruction.
assessing instruction. The time-restricted model is depicted in
Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 The time-restricted

model
Begin here l
Teacher reviews homework
prior to presenting new Teacher presents
material new material

Assessment occurs
only after several it-
erations of the cycle

Students complete
homework assignments
Teacher demonstrates
concepts, procedures

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 Chapter 2 Teaching and Assessment: The Instructional Process 23

The instructional process begins with quires them to write definitions to the
the classroom teacher introducing new terms "science," "research," and "scien-
material and then demonstrating exam- tific method." At the beginning of science
ples of the concepts or procedures in- class the next day, Mrs. Garcia reviews the
volved. At the end of that class period or definitions of the three terms. She then
lesson, the students are required to com- proceeds to outline the basic steps in the
plete worksheets or other homework ac- scientific method, discussing each one and
tivities, stressing repetition of the con- providing a single example. That eve-
cepts and procedures illustrated earlier by nihg' s homework requires the students to
the teacher. At the beginning of the next identify a simple example of a scientific
class period or lesson, the teacher reviews study and list the steps in the scientific
the answers to the homework activities method as they pertain to that topic. At
and then moves on to present new mate- the beginning of class the next day, the
rial. The cycle continues to repeat itself students share their responses and the
numerous times during the course of a class informally evaluates each one. This
unit of instruction. In the time-restricted process continues for the next two weeks
model, assessments are administered pe- until Mrs. Garcia administers a formal
riodically to determine the extent to which written test to her students.
students are understanding the concepts There is an assumption in the time-
and are able to apply them appropriately; restricted model that classroom instruc-
however, they are only administered fol- tion is unidirectional. That is, teachers
lowing relatively large amounts of subject possess all the information and their role
matter instruction. Furthermore, the time- is to transmit that course content to the
restricted model is routinely implemented students. The students, therefore, assume
at levels where a certain amount of mate- an extremely passive role. Their job is to
rial or specific content must be covered by try to absorb as much of the factual in-
the end of a school year or of a course (as formation as possible.
in secondary schools and colleges). In The main advantage of this model is
these situations, time typically dictates the that it is cost-effective in terms of the time
pace of instruction. set aside for assessments. Not much time
For example, Mrs. Garcia is beginning is spent on assessment; one simply ad-
a new unit teaching her eighth-grade stu- ministers a test at the end of the unit.
dents all about the scientific method. On However, there are several limitations to
the first day, she introduces the new ma- the time-restricted model. First, the as-
terial by discussing what is meant by sci- sessments often prove to be difficult for
ence and research and the process by students since they cover an extremely
which new inventions are created. She wide range of material, including both
assigns her students a worksheet that re- major and minor concepts, facts, and de-

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 24 PART I INTRODUCTION TO CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

tails (Gredler, 1999). Second, it often en- ties to revisit material that may be ham-
courages memorization on the part of pering student academic progress.
students in preparation for the formal as-
sessments. Finally, since the focus of the The "Continuous-Feedback Model"
model is a steady and continued progres- The continuous-feedback model is based
sion through the content, it does not pro- on the principle that the vast majority of
vide opportunities for the teacher to students could master the content pre-
reteach material with which students may sented to them if provided with addi-
be experiencing difficulty. tional time to learn (Gredler, 1999). The
Through high school and college, key characteristic of the continuous-
many of us were taught in this manner, so feedback model is that it incorporates both
we tend to believe that this is the only formative decision making (used only for
way in which to assess instruction. In feedback) and summative decision making
contrast to the time-restricted model, the (used for determining student grades).
remaining two models offer chances for The continuous-feedback model is de-
periodic assessment as well as opportuni- picted in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 The continuous-

feedback model

Formal as-
sessment and
summative
evaluation
occur
[Instruction - informal assess- Begin here l
ment- evaluation cycle
continues]

Discussion/ feedback
(formative evaluation)
occurs

assessment

instruction

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 Chapter 2 Teaching and Assessment: The Instructional Process 25

The instructional process within the cepts or information (Gredler, 1999). This
continuous-feedback model builds on the additional instruction- whether the con-
time-restricted model. The main addition tent is repetitious or new- is then fol-
is the incorporation of additional informal lowed by additional informal assessment
assessment and formative evaluation into and discussion/ formative evaluation. The
the process. Recall that the main purpose key is to administer the informal assess-
of formative evaluation is to provide ments frequently in order to address stu-
feedback on student progress to teachers dent errors sufficiently prior to the use of
and students. Assessments used for these graded, more formal assessments. The
purposes are not included in the students' cycle of
grades. Rather, they are designed to iden-
informal
tify students' errors and misunderstand-
instruction -? assessment -? evaluation
ings during the instructional process
(Gredler, 1999). continues until the end of a unit or grad-
Since the focal point of the continu- ing period is reached. At that time, more
ous-feedback model is to provide all stu- formal assessments are administered and
dents with the opportunity to achieve the results are used for establishing stu-
mastery of the subject matter, several as- dent grades (i.e., summative evaluation).
sessments of various types are required Gredler (1999) has identified four
throughout the process. As shown in Fig- steps necessary to the implementation of
ure 2.2, the process begins with the intro- the continuous-feedback model. These
duction of new material by the teacher. steps are:
This is followed by some sort of informal (1) Initially, a level of mastery must be
assessment. It is important to note that set for each unit of instruction in
these informal assessments may be more order to determine when students
formal in nature than their simplistic have achieved mastery and are
homework counterparts in the time- permitted to move ahead; typi-
restricted model. They require much cally, this level of academic per-
planning and forethought on the part of formance is equivalent to a grade
the teacher; they are not simply "activity of B.
sheets." The initial informal assessment is (2) Each informal (or formal) assess-
followed by informal individual and/ or ment (e.g., quiz or chapter test)
class discussion and formative evaluation should be used only for purposes
of the outcome of the assessment. If the of providing feedback.
teacher determines that an individual (3) Focused instruction must be pro-
student failed to achieve mastery of that vided to those students who do
content, he or she must receive additional not achieve mastery on the less
instruction focusing on the missed con- formal assessments, and they must

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 26 PART I INTRODUCTION TO CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

be retested following that addi- teachers must be willing to invest a great

tional instruction. deal of time in both the development of
(4) A much smaller number of graded assessments and intervention strategies
(i.e., formal) tests should be used for those students who experience trouble
in the course; an appropriate achieving mastery. In addition, there is
number may be two or three. the never-ending dilemma of how best to
The advantages of this model include address the delay of instruction on new
the potential for noticeable gains in stu- material for those students who are ready
dent achievement. Students are permitted to move on while nonmastery students
the opportunity to continually improve are receiving reinstruction on previously
their understanding of course content. covered concepts.
The frequent use of both informal and
formal assessments also tends to reduce The "Integrated Assessment Model"
the instance of test (or other assessment) The integrated assessment model is based
anxiety associated with the big unit test, on the notion that instruction should fo-
especially when students are not sure of cus on meaningful learning and thinking
how they have been progressing, as with (Gredler, 1999). A key characteristic of the
the time-restricted model. Additionally, integrated assessment model is that stu-
this model, simply put, helps students dents are taught how to think and to ap-
learn more and better; it discourages ply what they have learned to new situa-
memorization and encourages real learn- tions. The integrated assessment model is
ing. presented in Figure 2.3.
Limitations of the continuous-
feedback model include the fact that

Figure 2.3 The integrated

assessment model

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 Chapter 2 Teaching and Assessment: The Instructional Process 27

The 1980s saw a great deal of cur- tion, the teacher or the students may pose
riculum reform based on research sug- a question or problem-or, perhaps, even
gesting that students were proficient at a series of problems or questions- related
repeating facts and concepts but were un- to the topic. The students then work in
able to apply those facts and concepts in small groups, attempting to solve the
order to solve problems (Shepard, 2000; problem(s) or answer the question(s). Fi-
Gredler, 1999). The reform resulted in nally, upon completion of the activity, the
major revamping of both curriculum and various groups of students share their re-
instruction in order to focus on more spective approaches with the rest of the
meaningful learning and thinking. class.
As depicted in Figure 2.3, the inte- As the name implies, assessment plays
grated assessment model defines a differ- an integral part in this instructional
ent role for the classroom teacher. In the model. However, the assessments must
previous two models, especially in the change (from the homework assignments
time-restricted model, the teacher's role and tests that we have seen in the other
was essentially to serve as the "dispenser" models) in order to meet the demands of
of information to the students (i.e., the the variety of instructional processes be-
lower-right piece of the integrated as- ing used in the classroom. The assess-
sessment "puzzle"). In the continuous- ments must now begin to focus on stu-
feedback model, we saw teachers take on dents' abilities to apply their knowledge
the additional role of helping students and skills, in a problem-solving manner,
achieve mastery of the subject matter. to real-world tasks. For example, in the
However, in the integrated model, the real world we are seldom given a task to
teacher has become a guide for students solve along with four possible solutions
and a facilitator of student learning. The where we simply have to select the best
amount of large group instruction is sub- solution. As the saying goes, life is not a
stantially reduced, and the vast majority multiple-choice test! On the contrary,
of class time is spent with students problem solving requires the application
working in pairs or small groups. Stu- of deduction, induction, and a variety of
dents also assume a different role in the other cognitive processes.
integrated assessment model. They now Assessment must be an ongoing entity
possess a much higher level of responsi- throughout the entire process in this
bility for their own learning and must be model. It requires the use of a variety of
able to apply it to different situations. assessment formats in order for teachers
The process of instruction in the inte- to be well informed about students'
grated model typically begins with the strengths and weaknesses. For example,
teacher introducing some new topic or these formats might include informal ob-
material. Following this brief introduc- servations and questioning, checklists,

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 28 PART I INTRODUCTION TO CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

interviews, and rating scales of student Student learning truly becomes more
products and processes. All these types of meaningful.
assessments will be discussed in much However, the integrated model also
greater detail in later chapters. has its limitations. Its use requires the de-
The advantages of the integrated as- velopment of new skills on the part of
sessment model include the increased classroom teachers. Inservice training,
potential for gains in student achieve- followed by continued support, is a neces-
ment. Students begin to gain an under- sity if teachers are to successfully imple-
standing of how they think and process ment an integrated assessment model of
information. They learn how to apply instruction in their classrooms.
what they have learned to new and differ- The main features of the three models
ent situations, settings, and scenarios. of the relationship between teaching and
This, in turn, helps to solidify their under- assessment have been summarized in Ta-
standing of the facts, concepts, and prin- ble 2.1.
ciples for which they are also responsible.

Table 2.1 Summary of main features of the three teaching-assessment models

Teaching-Assessment Model

Characteristic Time-Restricted Continuous-Feedback Integrated

Purpose of assessment Assignment of grades Provision of feedback Facilitation of mean-

and assign grades ingfullearning and
thinking

Nature of instruction Unidirectional Mastery of subject Small groups focusing

matter content on application of
learning

Time of assessment End of instructional Periodically through- Ongoing throughout

cycle out instructional cycle instruction

Role of teacher Dispenser of informa- Dispenser of informa- Guide and facilitator of

tion tion to help students student learning
learn and achieve more

Role of student Passive learner More active role taken Responsible for their
by student own learning

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 Chapter 2 Teaching and Assessment: The Instructional Process 29

THE INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESS This visual representation of the proc-

The process of instruction is composed of ess and the relationships among the three
three basic components: planning instruc- components imply that each of the three
tion, delivering instruction, and assessing steps is dependent on the other two. For
instruction (Airasian, 2000). The step of example, when planning a unit on photo-
planning instruction includes the specifica- synthesis (step 1), science teachers might
tion of learning objectives, the identifica- want to consider different approaches to
tion of appropriate instructional materials, teaching the content (step 2). In other
and the development of a coherent se- words, the teachers would need to make
quence of subject matter and learning ac- decisions regarding the types of resources,
tivities. The next step, delivering instruc- materials, and visual aids to incorporate
tion, involves the teaching of desired con- into the unit. In addition, they would
tent and/ or skills to students. Finally, as- need to consider how best to determine
sessing instruction includes the determina- the level of student learning and the ex-
tion of the extent to which the learning tent to which their students understood
objectives were achieved. It might appear the photosynthetic process (step 3). When
as if this process is somewhat circular in developing particular assessments for the
nature-plan -7 deliver -7 assess, then be- unit (step 3), they must consider not only
gin again- but, in actuality, the various the specific content that was taught (step
steps of the process are integrated 1), but also how it was presented to stu-
throughout. The relationships among the dents (step 2). Assessment and decision
three components of the instructional making by teachers is required at each
process are portrayed in Figure 2.4. step of the instructional process (Airasian,
2000).

Figure 2.4 Relationships

among steps in the in-
structional process

Planning instruction

Delivering instruction Assessing instruction

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 30 PART I INTRODUCTION TO CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

As suggested in this example, all three Purposes

components must be aligned with one an- Good preparation helps teachers feel com-
other in order for appropriate instruction fortable with the various tasks of teaching
and subsequent learning to occur. In other and also gives them a sense of ownership
words, the instruction that is planned by a over the entire teaching act (Airasian,
teacher should directly relate to the actual 2000). Planning for instruction occurs on a
instruction, and the assessments should variety of levels. The most essential type
closely reflect both the planned and deliv- of planning done by teachers is the unit
ered instruction (Airasian, 2000). One of plan. This type of plan is followed in im-
the most important things to remember portance by the teacher's weekly and
about the instructional process is the fol- daily lesson plans. A unit plan consists of
lowing: All three components in the instruc- an outline or overview of a rather large
tional process must be parallel with one an- section of content material. A unit might
other. be composed of several textbook chapters
Let us proceed in our discussion of the or a common theme and last several
instructional process, beginning with a weeks to several months. The purpose of
closer examination of the first step, that of developing this overview of a unit of in-
planning instruction. struction is to allow for more specific
planning in the form of weekly and daily
Planning Instruction lesson plans. Failure to begin instructional
Planning is an important activity in which planning with a unit plan does not enable
teachers engage. They must make nu- teachers to see the continuity of the "big
merous decisions throughout the instruc- picture" with respect to the large portion
tional process regarding things such as of material. Once teachers can envision
what they want their students to learn, the broad overview and the continuity
whether to cover in class all topics pre- among subsections of the material, they
sented in the textbook or to omit certain can better plan the specifics for the in-
ones, whether the textbook material needs struction of more manageable "chunks" of
to be supplemented with other sources of content material. Planning for instruction
information, how to address specific also tends to provide structure and a
learning styles of their students, the pace sense of order to the complex environ-
of instruction, what types of homework ments that make up classrooms.
and other formal and informal assess- Airasian (2000) has identified three
ments should be used, and how to for- ways in which pre-instructional planning
mally and summatively evaluate student helps teachers. First, it reduces the uncer-
learning. Instruction is most certainly not tainly and anxiety about instruction by
something you want to try to do while providing a sense of purpose and focus.
"thinking on your feet"! Second, planning furnishes teachers with

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 Chapter 2 Teaching and Assessment: The Instrnctional Process X 31

opportunities to review and familiarize detail in this book. However, I will offer
themselves with the material and activi- several suggestions or guidelines for de-
ties prior to implementing them. Finally, veloping lesson plans to direct your in-
it provides a framework to follow during struction. These guidelines have been
the actual act of instruction. adapted from Quina (1989).
Guideline #1: There is no single way (i.e., one
Lesson Plans "correct" format) to write a lesson plan. A
Unit plans are followed by the develop- common misconception, especially on the
ment of more specific weekly and daily part of preservice teachers, is that there is
lesson plans. A weekly plan typically only one way to develop a daily lesson
provides a brief overview of what will be plan. The format of a lesson plan is largely
covered each day of a given week for each determined by the purpose of the lesson.
subject, course, or class period. Within In some instances, it may be more appro-
weekly plans, teachers include the in- priate to focus on your behavior as well as
structional objectives (which will be dis- that of the students; other times, you may
cussed in detail below) and a concise decide that the focus of the lesson should
summary of the activities for each day's be entirely on what it is the students will
lesson. An example of a weekly plan is be doing. The detailed format of a lesson
shown in Figure 2.5. plan is not something that can be deter-
Once the weekly plans have been mined by someone who is not familiar
specified, teachers then develop the de- with your classroom and teaching style.
tailed plans that will actually guide their You must find a format that works for
instruction. During the development of you and your style of planning and
these daily lesson plans, teachers should teaching.
try to visualize themselves teaching while Guideline #2: Even though they are detailed,
following the plans they are attempting to lesson plans are not written in stone and do
delineate. This allows them the opportu- allow for flexibility. Lesson plans can ap-
nity to anticipate any problems or diffi- pear rigid, if they are developed, and ul-
culties and, perhaps, address them prior timately followed, as if they were scripts.
to actually teaching the material or activ- Remember that lesson plans are guides;
ity. This planning constitutes somewhat of their purpose is to direct your instruction,
a dress rehearsal for actual classroom in- not dictate your instruction. They are
struction. meant to provide direction, while at the
Much research has been conducted on same time allowing you to act as a profes-
various approaches to instruction and the sional, making appropriate decisions and
formats of lesson plans that accompany adjustments as you proceed through a les-
those approaches. There is neither time son.
nor space to address all the approaches in

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 32 PART I INTRODUCTION TO CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

Figure 2.5 Sample page

from a weekly plan book

Teacher: 'Mr. 'Ro6erts Week: :Jan. 22 - 26. 2001

Grade:~

Subject Monday Tuesday Wednesday

0'13j: Students wi(( add 2- 0'13:J: Students wi(( esti- 0'13j: Students wi(( esti-
'Math (9:15 - 9:45) di[jit num6ers. mate sum 12-di[jit mate sum 1 and add
(1) Teacher works at num6ers. 2-di[jit num6ers.
feast 5 samyfe yro6- (1) Teacher introduces (1) rfeacher conducts
(ems, demonstratina conceyt 1 "estima- further checks for
ru(es 1 carryina. tion." understandina cf
(2) Students workyro6- (2) Teacher works at addition and esti-
(ems and ora((y (east 5 san:Pfe yro6- mation.
share how they ar- (ems, demonstratina (2) Students wi(( com- >
rived at their an- estimation. y(ete in-c(ass work-
swers. (3) Students work yro6- sheet on addition
(ems and ora((y and estimation.
share how they ar-
rived at their an-
swers.
0'13j: Students wi(( difine 0'13:J: Students wi(( fist 0'13j: Stulents wi(( a.P.P0J
Science (10:oo- 10:30) "scientific method." and descri6e steys in steys in the scientific
(1) Teacher introduces the scientific method. method.
conceyt cf research. (1) Teacher reviews steys (1) rfeacher reviews steys
(2) Teacher introduces in scientific method. in scientific method.
steys in scientific (2) Students comy(ete (2) Teacher yrovides a
method. worksheet descri6ina, toyic; workina in
in their own words, arouys, students ay-
the various steys. y(y sci. methodto
toyic. >
O'Bj: Stulents wi(( difine 0'13j: Students wi(( iden- O'B:J: Students wi(( de-
'Readina (10:30- u:oo) "characterization." tify main character scri6e settina cf a
if story. story.

Guideline #3: Even if you believe that you can part of teachers to at least think through
remember what you are going to teach, lesson the planning process, if not formalize it in
plans should be an integral part of the teach- writing, can potentially be the greatest
ing process for every teacher. Failure on the downfall to a particular lesson. Novice as

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 Chapter 2 Teaching and Assessment: The Instructional Process X 33

well as experienced teachers will always • an outline of the procedures for the
benefit from writing out a plan in advance lesson (these include expected teacher
of the implementation of a lesson. The behaviors and student behaviors- for
actual process of formally writing out a example, " ... the teacher will ... " and
plan will often enlighten teachers as to " ... the students will ... ")
possible gaps or discontinuities in the • a plan for assessing the extent to
procedures, methods, and activities of a which the objectives were met.
given lesson. A generic lesson plan form appears in
Guideline #4: Formal lesson planning does Figure 2.6. Notice that all the required
not stifle the creative process. Another mis- components listed above appear in the
conception often held by preservice teach- form. However, the layout and format of
ers is that impromptu lessons are the most the lesson plan form can- and most likely
creative. On the contrary, developing les- should- be adapted to meet your specific
son plans often creates opportunities for classroom needs. It is, however, a starting
teachers to engage in professional reflec- point for you to begin developing a plan-
tion in order to anticipate potential limi- ning form that will work for you.
tations or weaknesses in a lesson, or to When using a form similar to the one
look back on a lesson already taught in depicted in Figure 2.6, most lessons can be
order to identify possible ways in which a planned and summarized in one to two
lesson can be revised and improved. Not pages. Often, the section for "Procedures"
only does this process promote creativity, is rather lengthy, much more so than rep-
it also results in the refinement of lesson resented in the sample provided in the
content. figure. In an attempt to make this process
Regardless of its format, any lesson of developing lesson plans a bit more con-
plan should contain, at a minimum, the crete, I have included in Figure 2.7 two
following components: sample lesson plans, one at the elemen-
• a description of the lesson topic tary level (Figure 2.7a) and one at the sec-
• the instructional objectives (these will ondary level (Figure 2.7b). Both are actual
be discussed below) lesson plans used by classroom teachers.
• time allotment For both examples, pay close attention to
• required materials and supplemental the different ways in which the compo-
resources needed nents are incorporated into the plan.
• a brief outline of the content

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 34 PART I INTRODUCTION TO CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

Figure2.6 A
sample lesson
plan form

Daily Lesson Plan

Teacher: _ _ _ _ _ _ __ Date: _ _ _ _ __
Subject: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Topic:

Objectives:

Time:

Materials:

Procedures:

Assessment:

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 Chapter 2 Teaching and Assessment: The Instructional Process X 35

Figure 2.7(a) Plan for 3rd grade Language Arts lesson

Title - Past Tense Verbs •

Teacher - Tania Yap
Primary Subject - Language Arts
Grade Level - 3-4
Time Period - I hour

Objectives:
Pupils should be able to
I. understand that verbs can tell about actions that happened in the past.
2. name past tense verbs when given present tense verbs.

Strategies: Direct Teaching, Individual Activity, and Group Activity

Context: In this lesson, pupils can practice sentence construction and apply their new knowledge through creative
writing.

INTRODUCTION
Tuning-in:
I. Teacher gets a pupil to do a jumping action. Asks pupils to name the verb that he is acting out Gump ). Writes the
verb on the board.
2. Does so for four other verbs: walk, kick, shout, laugh.
3. Teacher asks pupils to construct sentences using each of the verbs.
4. Teacher gets pupils to read the sentences.

DEVELOPMENT
PART ONE
Explaining Language Feature:
5. Teacher explains that the present tense is used when the action is done today or at the present moment. If the
action was done yesterday or in the past, past tense must be used.
6. Teacher tells pupils that past tense means adding "ed" at the end of the verb.
Pupil response:
7. Teacher refers to the sentence constructed on the board and adds "ed" to the verb "jump," and adds "yesterday"
to the sentence.
8. Teacher gets pupils to read the sentence.
9. Teacher asks pupils to change the other four sentences into past tense by repeating the exercise.

PART TWO
Explaining Language Feature:
IO. Teacher explains that there are special words that change their spelling when they become past tense. Shows a
few examples: run-ran, see-saw, come-came, go-went.
II. Teacher gets pupils to construct sentences using these past tense verbs.
I2. Teacher hands out a list of commonly used past tense verbs.

CONCLUSION
13. Pupils are to do varied individual work according to their abilities.
I4. The high- and middle-ability pupils are to identify and edit present tense verbs into past tense verbs.
I5. The low-ability pupils are to match past tense verbs to their respective present tense verbs.

FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY
I6. Teacher arranges pupils into groups based on ability levels.
I7. Each group is to write a composition based on a given picture, using past tense.

a Adapted from [Link]

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 36 PART I INTRODUCTION TO CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

Figure 2.7(b) Plan for junior high Social Studies lesson

Title - US Constitution b Unit Topic - US Constitution

Teacher - Bryan Mallette Grade- 8th
Subject - Social Studies Lesson Topic - The Executive Branch
Grade Level - Junior High Primary Teaching Method Used- Discussion

Lesson Objectives: Students will be able to

1. discuss the powers assigned to the president by the Constitution.
2. describe the electoral college process and its effect on presidential elections.
3. outline the responsibilities of the president as the commander-in-chief of the anned forces.
4. identify with 100% accuracy the four major responsibilities of the president.
5. discuss with clarity the impeachment process.

Equipment and Supplies Needed: textbook, blackboard, chalk

Anticipatory Set: Begin with a discussion of what makes a good president. Take a straw poll of the students on their
feelings about who among the present candidates would make the best president.

Sequence of Learning Activities:

1. Anticipatory set 3. Assignment of homework
2. Discussion of Article 2 of the Constitution 4. Closure

Assignments: Read Article 3 of the Constitution.

Closure: The conclusion of this lesson will be an open discussion of what powers the students feel should or should
not be included as presidential powers.

Adaptations: Incorporate practical examples of how the presidential powers affect what has happened in the past
four years. Include discussion about impeachment, current presidential campaign and recent military campaigns
or exercises.

Student Assessment: The students will be assessed on their comprehension of these concepts during the discussion
period. They will also be tested on this information at the end of the chapter.

b Adapted from [Link]

Although teachers are ultimately re- "scope and sequence" (i.e., the specific
sponsible for the planning of instruction topics and the order in which they should
that occurs within the four walls of their be taught), suggested classroom activities,
own classrooms, they are not responsible and expected levels of student achieve-
for identifying the concepts, skills, and ment (Gredler, 1999). School districts of-
topics that are to be taught at specific ten formulate their curriculum guides to
grade levels or within certain subject ar- parallel those of their respective state de-
eas. These are dictated by individual partments of education.
school districts in the form of curriculum
guides, sometimes referred to as curricu- Instructional Objectives
lum frameworks or courses of study. Cur- One of the most important components in
riculum guides typically provide guid- a lesson plan is the instructional objective.
ance to teachers in the form of curricular Instructional objectives, also known as

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 Chapter 2 Teaching and Assessment: The Instructional Process X 37

educational objectives, are statements name from the lead author of the book in
that clearly describe what students are which the classification system appeared
expected to learn or to be able to do fol- and has become known as Bloom's taxon-
lowing instruction. You may see instruc- omy of educational objectives, or simply as
tional objectives referred to by several Bloom's taxonomy. There are actually
other names, including classroom objectives, three separate categories, or domains, of
learning objectives, performance objectives, objectives and subsequent student be-
behavioral objectives, curriculum objectives, haviors. These categories are the cognitive
learning targets, instructional outcomes, and domain, the affective domain, and the
student outcomes (Airasian, 2000; Gredler, psychomotor domain. The original taxon-
1999; Gallagher, 1998). Regardless of the omy was created for the cognitive do-
name attached to them, instructional ob- main and includes behaviors such as
jectives are an essential aspect of the memorization, problem solving, critical
planning process. Not only do they de- thinking, and other intellectual activities.
scribe in very precise terms what students The affective domain involves feelings,
are to accomplish as a result of instruc- beliefs, attitudes, interests, and values.
tion, they also help teachers focus their The psychomotor domain includes be-
instruction by guiding that instruction haviors that are physical and/ or ma-
toward some ultimate goal (i.e., what stu- nipulative in nature. For our purposes, we
dents should achieve by the end of a unit, will focus on the cognitive domain of in-
chapter, or lesson). Furthermore, they structional objectives.
serve as targets for the assessment activi- The cognitive domain of Bloom's tax-
ties that follow instruction (Gronlund, onomy is organized into six levels. These
2000). The following are examples of in- levels constitute somewhat of a hierarchy;
structional objectives: that is, each level represents more com-
• The students will list three causes of the plex cognitive behaviors and thinking
Civil War. skills than the level or levels that precede
• The students will explain the process of it (Airasian, 2000). The six levels in the
photosynthesis in their own words. taxonomy, from simplest to most com-
• The students will solve word problems plex, are knowledge, comprehension, ap-
requiring the addition of two-digit num- plication, analysis, synthesis, and evalua-
bers. tion. It is important to note that the taxon-
omy represents a hierarchy of thinking
Three Domains of Objectives skills; it is not a teaching hierarchy. The
In the mid-1950s, a group of five indi- hierarchical arrangement of Bloom's tax-
viduals developed the first system for onomy is depicted in Figure 2.8.
classifying instructional objectives. This
renowned classification system took its

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 38 PART I INTRODUCTION TO CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

Evaluation
Figure 2.8 The hierarchical arrangement
of levels in the cognitive domain of ...................
...................
...................
Bloom's taxonomy
...................
····---------------
Synthesis
........................
.......................
........................
.......................
........................
Analysis
.......................
.......................
-------------------····
·······················
.......................
Application
..................
...................
························
...................
...................
,

Comprehension
.......................
........................
........................
.......................
........................
Knowledge
.......................
.......................
.......................
.......................

Each level is characterized by typical • Synthesis: behaviors typified by the

behaviors (i.e., those behaviors that stu- ability to combine several smaller bits
dents should be able to exhibit). The type of information into a new generaliza-
of behavior that exemplifies each level of tion or conclusion
the cognitive domain in Bloom's taxon- • Evaluation: the ability to judge the
omy is shown below: value or worth of something, based on
• Knowledge: memorization behaviors, in evidence
particular the recall of previously en- The six levels of the cognitive domain
countered information can be further simplified by placing them
• Comprehension: understanding behav- into a two-category system that distin-
iors, such as being able to explain guishes lower-level cognitive behaviors
terms and concepts in your own from higher-level cognitive behaviors.
words Lower-level cognitive behaviors tend to
• Application: behaviors characterized by focus on basic thinking strategies, such as
being able to use previously encoun- rote memorization, recall of information,
tered information, often abstract con- and simple understanding of subject
cepts, in order to solve an unfamiliar matter. In Bloom's taxonomy, the knowl-
problem edge and comprehension levels represent
• Analysis: behaviors characterized by lower-level thinking skills. Higher-level
the ability to break down large pieces cognitive behaviors include thinking
of information into component parts skills beyond simple memorization and

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 Chapter 2 Teaching and Assessment: The Instructional Process X 39

understanding, as they are arranged in the demonstrate that they have learned, and
hierarchy. These include application, teachers must be able to observe and as-
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. sess that "presentation" as evidence that
It is important for teachers to be aware the learning has occurred. Behaviors such
of the distinction between lower- and as think, know, or understand are too vague
higher-order cognitive behaviors because and cannot be measured. For example, try
it is easier to teach and assess lower-level to imagine the difficulties you might en-
thinking skills. Hence, some teachers fall counter if you attempted to determine the
into the trap of unintentionally overem- extent to which your students understood
phasizing lower-level skills. To avoid this some key concept. It is virtually impossi-
potential trap, it is important to classify all ble to directly "see" or "touch" an indi-
instructional objectives according to vidual's level of understanding. As teach-
Bloom's taxonomy while asking yourself ers, we must provide opportunities for
whether both levels of skills are included. students to demonstrate that they under-
stand the concept. In other words, teach-
Writing Instructional Objectives ers must give students something to do
Gronlund (2000) suggests that when that will serve as a demonstration of their
writing instructional objectives, there are understanding. This "something" typi-
several important things that teachers cally takes the form of an assessment (e.g.,
should bear in mind. First, instructional a homework activity, a quiz, a test, or a
objectives should be written in terms of project). Through completion of those
student behaviors, not behaviors exhib- types of assessment tasks, students dem-
ited by the teacher. Remember that the onstrate that they either do or do not un-
purpose of instructional objectives is to derstand the concepts being taught.
focus instruction on behaviors that stu- Third, the specific content, skill, or be-
dents should be able to exhibit or on skills havior to be demonstrated by students
they should be able to perform upon must be included within each instruc-
completion of an instructional unit. As a tional objective. The objective should be
reminder of this fact, instructional objec- clearly specified so that both the behavior
tives often begin with phrases such as and how the student is to demonstrate the
"The student will ... " or "The learner behavior are made very clear. Airasian
can ... " In either case, objectives remind (2000) summarizes the basic requirements
the teacher to focus instruction and as- of instructional objectives and states that
sessment on desirable student outcomes. they should include the specification of:
Second, instructional objectives must • the student behavior that should re-
focus on observable and measurable stu- sult from instruction in terms that can
dent characteristics or behaviors. Students be observed;
must be provided with the opportunity to

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 40 PART I INTRODUCTION TO CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

• the content on which the behavior is to flow that the delivery of instruction will
be performed. take or the possible obstacles to learning
Airasian (2000) has also provided a simple that students might experience during the
model for writing instructional objectives: course of a lesson. Similarly to the devel-
opment of lesson plans, teachers must be
The student will [observable behavior]
flexible in their approach to using in-
[specific content].
structional objectives. When a given
Three examples of instructional objectives situation warrants, teachers must be
follow. Notice how all three fit into this willing to adapt to these unforeseen hin-
simple model. drances. Teachers must rely on their pro-
• The students will translate a written fessional discretion to determine how pre-
German passage into English. cisely they follow the instructional objec-
• The students will compare and contrast tives that were developed prior to begin-
the circulatory system of vertebrates to ning actual instruction (Airasian, 2000).
that of invertebrates.
• The students will count to 100 aloud in Teacher-Made versus Publisher-
increments of 5. Developed Materials
Textbooks, as well as other resources such
Notice that in all three objectives, the as the Internet, can provide teachers with
student behavior has actually been speci- a wealth of resources for use during all
fied by the verb in each statement. Not
three phases of instruction (Airasian,
only have the behaviors been specified, 2000). Textbook publishers often develop
but behaviors are also observable. The teacher's editions, teacher's guides, or
verbs translate, compare and contrast, and other types of supplemental materials.
count are all actions that teachers are able During the planning stage, one can find
to observe and assess. These verbs are
resources such as unit and lesson objec-
known as action verbs and serve as the tives, unit and lesson plans, and ideas for
basis for specifying the observable be- introductory activities. (Some similar
haviors in instructional objectives. Each
types of Internet resources are highlighted
level of Bloom's taxonomy has several later in this chapter.) Resources such as
distinctive action verbs that act as specific lesson overviews, guiding questions,
observable behaviors for objectives writ-
content outlines, visual aids, transparency
ten at the various levels of the taxonomy. masters, and homework assignments or
Sample action verbs for each level are worksheets can provide assistance during
provided in Table 2.2. the delivery of instruction. Finally, unit or
Since the specification of instructional chapter tests, as well as end-of-book "final
objectives is part of the lesson planning exams" have also been developed for
process, it obviously occurs prior to in-
teacher use.
struction. It is difficult to anticipate the

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 Chapter 2 Teaching and Assessment: The Instructional Process 41

Table 2.2 Sample action verbs for levels of the cognitive domain of Bloom's taxonomy

Level Sample Action Verbs

Knowledge list, define, tell, describe, identify, show, label, collect

Comprehension summarize, describe, interpret, predict, associate, distinguish, estimate, discuss
Application apply, demonstrate, calculate, complete, illustrate, show, solve, examine, modify
Analysis analyze, separate, order, explain, connect, classify, arrange, divide, compare
Synthesis combine, integrate, modify, rearrange, substitute, plan, create, design, compose
Evaluation assess, decide, rank, recommend, convince, select, judge, discriminate, support

These prepackaged lesson objectives that most teachers and students would
and plans, visual aids, activities, assess- benefit from them). If a teacher chooses to
ment items, and other teacher resources utilize these types of materials, it is the
can prove very valuable to the classroom responsibility of that teacher to ensure
teacher. However, there is sometimes a that they are adapted appropriately for
tendency for teachers to rely solely on use (1) by that teacher, (2) with those stu-
these types of materials and resources. dents, (3) with the particular instructional
Teachers who rely exclusively on these objectives and content, and (4) with the
types of materials are in potential viola- appropriate assessments. Adoption of
tion of a basic tenet of classroom teaching these resources requires a thorough ex-
that was stressed earlier in this chapter: amination of their strengths and limita-
All three components in the instructional tions. Making the decision to use these
process- planning, delivering, and assessing materials should most certainly not occur
instruction -must be in alignment with one before school on the day in which the les-
another. Textbook publishers have no way son will be taught or the assessment ad-
of knowing what a given teacher's in- ministered. Although readily available
structional goals and objectives are, or the and a time-saver, prepackaged instruc-
types of methods that a teacher uses in his tional materials and resources tend to fo-
or her classroom. Additionally, they can- cus on lower-level thinking skills and,
not know the individual instructional when used in the absence of critical re-
needs of each student in that teacher's view, can lead to inappropriate instruc-
classroom. Rather, these materials are de- tion for some students (Airasian, 2000).
signed with the typical teacher in mind
(i.e., these resources are developed such

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 42 X PART I INTRODUCTION TO CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

Delivering Instruction evaluation process is carried out in an on-

The second phase of the instructional going, never-ending manner. Teachers do
process is the actual delivery of instruc- it constantly every day and throughout
tion to students. Although this is not a every lesson. Teachers continuously
teaching methods textbook, there are gather assessment information-usually
some important things to remember about in the form of informal assessments (i.e.,
the delivery of instruction and the impact by making observations, asking questions,
that assessment has on that instruction. etc.). They are careful to notice things
such as unusual student reactions or be-
Assessment During Instruction haviors, nonverbal cues (i.e., a "wrinkled
According to Airasian (2000), teachers brow," perhaps indicating a lack of un-
should engage in two tasks once instruc- derstanding), or unanticipated student
tion has begun: (1) deliver the instruction questions that may lead a teacher to con-
that they have planned, and (2) constantly clude that the instruction and subsequent
assess and evaluate the effectiveness of learning are not progressing well. A
their instruction in order to alter it when teacher's knowledge of his or her own
the situation warrants. Often, things do class and subject matter, coupled with the
not go according to a teacher's well- information provided by these ongoing
developed plans. Teachers must attend to assessments of progress, allow the teacher
student questions, off-task behaviors, and to adapt the instruction to truly meet the
various levels of interest in the subject instructional needs of the students. It is
matter. In addition, there exist a variety of important to remember that seldom, if
school-based events that can interrupt ever, do instructional lessons go exactly as
teachers' delivery of instruction, such as you planned them. You must be prepared
assemblies, fire drills, and the unexpected to assess and adapt them.
classroom visit from the principal. All
these things can force teachers to alter Assessing Instruction
their instruction. The third and final phase of the instruc-
Teachers must assess the progress that tional process is the formal assessment of
their particular instruction is making on the instruction delivered to students. In
the ultimate goal of student learning, and Chapter 1, you read about the differences
then subsequently make decisions about between formative and summative
that progress (e.g., "Are the students get- evaluations. Those concepts are now ap-
ting this?"; "Is my teaching enabling the plied to the instructional process.
students to show that they have met my
objectives?"; "Should I proceed, or do I Formative Evaluation
need to review that last concept and pro- Formative evaluations have been de-
vide more examples?"). This assessment- scribed as those evaluations that occur

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 Chapter 2 Teaching and Assessment: The Instructional Process X 43

during instruction, for the purpose of de- Summative Evaluation

termining what adjustments need to be Much more formal assessments are ad-
made. The primary application of forma- ministered following the completion of a
tive evaluations to the instructional proc- unit or some other major cycle of instruc-
ess was actually discussed in the preced- tion. Summative decision making typi-
ing section. Most formative decision cally follows written tests or other large-
making occurs during instruction and scale projects and performances. Results
typically results from informal assess- are typically used for the purposes of as-
ments. Recall that these types of assess- signing grades to students as measures of
ments are spontaneous and include un- their achievement levels, but can also be
planned assessments such as visual ob- used as final measures of the overall ef-
servations and oral questioning. fectiveness of instruction (Gallagher,
However, some formative evaluations 1998). They provide information to teach-
may be based on assessments that are ers regarding the extent to which the in-
more formal. Assessments such as take- structional objectives were met as a result
home worksheets, individual seatwork of instruction, as well as information re-
activities, and brief written quizzes cer- garding the implications for future cycles
tainly differ from informal assessments of instruction on the same topic or of the
since they must be planned in advance of same unit. In this latter application, sum-
their administration. These more formal mative decisions are actually being used
assessments occur at specific planned in a formative manner. In other words,
breaks or pauses in instruction (e.g., at the they are being used as feedback to guide
end of a section that constitutes part of a future instruction.
large book chapter). Although these are Gallagher (1998) has identified three
planned assessments, their purpose is still major uses of the results of summative
to help in making decisions about adjust- evaluations. First and foremost, they pro-
ments to instruction. For example, if stu- vide feedback, information, and direction
dents do not perform well on an oral quiz to the teachers and students who were
or homework sheet, a teacher may decide directly involved in the instruction. Sec-
to revisit previously covered material ond, these assessments provide feedback
since the students apparently failed to and information to stakeholders who do
understand the material or concepts. More not have direct involvement in the proc-
important, this information is gathered ess, such as parents and school adminis-
and the decision made prior to the ad- trators. Finally, depending on the nature
ministration of much more formal as- of the instruction and assessment, the re-
sessments that will ultimately be used as sults may be used by other groups of in-
the basis for assigning grades (i.e., sum- dividuals, such as guidance counselors or
mative evaluations). school psychologists.

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 44 PART I INTRODUCTION TO CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

It is critical to remember that not all In order for classroom instruction to

students in your classroom will achieve be effective, the three components of the
the instructional objectives you establish, instructional process must be aligned with
unless they are very low-level objectives. one another. In other words, decisions
For a variety of reasons, some students made during the planning phase should
will have a more difficult time experienc- also take into consideration both the de-
ing success. When trying to determine the livery and assessment of instruction.
overall effectiveness of your instruction, Similarly, decisions made about the deliv-
there will most certainly be some out- ery and assessment of instruction should
comes of your instruction that should be consider the remaining two phases. All
achieved by nearly all students; however, three components should be parallel.
for some outcomes, this expectation may Many important decisions must be
be less reasonable (Gallagher, 1998). made during the planning of instruction.
Unit plans, weekly plans, and daily lesson
SUMMARY plans provide the structure for the scope
The instructional process consists of three and sequence of instruction. The starting
phases: planning instruction, delivering point for any lesson plan is the specifica-
instruction, and assessing instruction. As- tion of instructional objectives. These ob-
sessment is an integral part of all three jectives should be developed on the basis
phases. Information must be gathered and of the six levels of the cognitive domain of
informed decisions made prior to, during, Bloom's taxonomy. Instructional objec-
and following instruction. tives consist of two basic components: an
Three models depicting the relation- action verb (which specifies the observ-
ship between teaching and assessment able student behavior) and the specific
were discussed. The time-restricted model content being addressed. Prepackaged
involves assessment only at the end of in- instructional objectives, lesson plans, and
struction. The continuous-feedback model other resources are available; however,
incorporates assessment for both feedback teachers should utilize them only after
and the assignment of grades. Finally, the they have been carefully evaluated for
integrated assessment model blends as- appropriateness.
sessment and instruction so that instruc-
tion focuses on more meaningful thinking
and learning.

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 Chapter 2 Teaching and Assessment: The Instructional Process X 45

JG Chapter 2 Related Web Sites Q

•!• Bloom, et al.'s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain
(chi ron. [Link]!whuitt/col/cogsys/[Link])
Dr. Bill Whuitt of Valdosta State University maintains this site where he provides a
definition, a list of several action verbs, and a sample behavioral objective for each of
the six levels of Bloom's cognitive domain.

•!• The Lesson Plans Page ([Link]

This site provides more than 1,000 lesson plans developed by classroom teachers. You
begin by selecting a subject area (math, science, language arts, computers, social stud-
ies, art, physical education and health, or multidisciplinary), followed by a specific level
(grades PreK-1, 2-3,4-5, 6-7, junior/high school, or multiple). The site is free of charge
and is also searchable by topic. However, I reiterate one major caution: These lesson
plans were developed by teachers for use in their classrooms, not yours. Please make
sure you take the time to scrutinize the objectives, content, materials, and activities, and
adapt them to meet your individual needs.

•:• AskERIC Lesson Plans ([Link](Lessons)

ERIC, the Educational Resources Information Center, also maintains a database of les-
son plans developed by classroom teachers. Once again, please make sure that you take
the time to closely examine all aspects of the lesson plan and adapt them to meet your
individual needs. The database is searchable by topic and grade level. Also included is
a link ([Link](Lessons/[Link]) to AskERIC's "Write-a-Lesson Plan
Guide," which provides some very useful planning advice, as well as more links to les-
son plan Web sites.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

1. A teacher is overheard saying, "I make sure my students master the content of myles-
sons by incorporating all the work they complete into their final course grades." What,
if any, problems are there with this statement? Explain.
2. Why might you expect that several teachers within the same school and teaching the
same grades and subject matter would have lesson plan formats that differ from one
another?

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 46 X PART I INTRODUCTION TO CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

3. How would you respond to a teacher who says, "I don't believe in formal planning. I
don't do weekly or daily lesson plans because I never end up following them anyway"?
4. How do curriculum guides relate to unit and lesson plans?
5. Consider the following instructional objective: The students will list the three primary col-
ors. Would you classify this objective as addressing lower- or higher-order thinking
skills? Explain.
6. In which specific level of Bloom's taxonomy would the objective listed in Question 5
above be classified? Explain.
7. Consider the following objective: The students will classify the leaf samples into like catego-
ries based on similar characteristics. Which higher-order skill of Bloom's taxonomy is be-
ing addressed? Explain.
8. A fifth-grade teacher is searching the Internet for resources related to a unit on the Civil
War to be taught next month and stumbles on an entire unit plan. Excitedly, the teacher
prints out the unit plan and all the related student activities. You enter the room just in
time to hear the teacher say, "Wow! That was easy. Now I can relax until it's time to
begin the unit." Having just taken an assessment course, what advice would you offer
this teacher?
9. Why is it important to constantly assess your instruction during the time the instruction
is occurring?
10. Since summative assessments typically occur at the end of an instructional cycle, is
there any way that they might be used in a formative manner (i.e., to provide feed-
back)? Explain.

ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES
1. (a). Select a topic in a subject matter area with which you are familiar and a unit in
that area. Ideally, it should be in an area you would like to teach someday. Using the
suggestions and guidelines presented in the chapter, write five to seven instructional
objectives. Remember that your objectives should be written for key or major skills that
students should be able to perform upon completion of the unit, not for each isolated
piece of content in the unit.
(b). After you have written your instructional objectives, classify each according to the
level of skill it represents in Bloom's taxonomy. If you determine that all of your objec-
tives are assessing lower-level thinking skills, select two or three and rewrite them so
that they assess higher-order thinking skills. Be prepared to share your objectives with
the class.
2. Select one or two of the instructional objectives that you developed in Activity number
1 above. For these objectives, and using the lesson plan format as shown in Figure 2.6,
develop a lesson plan for teaching that content. In addition to your instructional objec-
tives, be sure to include the following in your lesson plan:
• the approximate timeframe
• materials and other resources necessary for the lesson

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 Chapter 2 Teaching and Assessment: The Instructional Process X 47

• clearly outlined procedures (specify what you will be doing and what you will ex-
pect your students to be doing)
• the plan for assessing the extent to which your objectives have been met.
3. Working in small groups (preferably organized by common subject areas), select one
chapter from a textbook. If grouping into common subject areas is not feasible, you
might use this textbook. Based on the content of the chapter, write one instructional
objective for each level of Bloom's taxonomy. Be prepared to share your objectives.

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 48 X PART I INTRODUCTION TO CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

Notes

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