Module 3: Descriptive Statistics
The Applied Research Center
Module 3 Overview
} Measures of Central Tendency
} Measures of Variability
} Frequency Distributions
} Running Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency
} Three measures of central tendency are available
} The Mean
} The Median
} The Mode
} Unfortunately, no single measure of central tendency
works best in all circumstances
} Nor will they necessarily give you the same answer
Example
} SAT scores from a sample of 10 college applicants yielded
the following:
} Mode: 480
} Median: 505
} Mean: 526
} Which measure of central tendency is most appropriate?
The Mean
} The mean is simply the arithmetic average
} The mean would be the amount that each individual
would get if we took the total and divided it up equally
among everyone in the sample
} Alternatively, the mean can be viewed as the balancing
point in the distribution of scores (i.e., the distances for
the scores above and below the mean cancel out)
The Median
} The median is the score that splits the distribution
exactly in half
} 50% of the scores fall above the median and 50% fall
below
} The median is also known as the 50th percentile, because
it is the score at which 50% of the people fall below
Special Notes
} A desirable characteristic of the median is that it is not
affected by extreme scores
} Example:
} Sample 1: 18, 19, 20, 22, 24
} Sample 2: 18, 19, 20, 22, 47
} Thus, the median is not distorted by skewed distributions
The Mode
} The mode is simply the most common score
} There is no formula for the mode
} When using a frequency distribution, the mode is simply
the score (or interval) that has the highest frequency
value
} When using a histogram, the mode is the score (or
interval) that corresponds to the tallest bar
Distribution Shape and Central
Tendency
} In a normal distribution, the mean, median, and mode will
be approximately equal
x
Med
Mo
Skewed Distribution
} In a skewed distribution, the mode will be the peak, the
mean will be pulled toward the tail, and the median will
fall in the middle
Mo Med x
Choosing the Proper Statistic
} Continuous data
} Always report the mean
} If data are substantially skewed, it is appropriate to use the
median as well
} Categorical data
} For nominal data you can only use the mode
} For ordinal data the median is appropriate (although people
often use the mean)
Example
} SAT scores from a sample of 10 college applicants yielded
the following:
} Mode: 480
} Median: 505
} Mean: 526
} Which measure of central tendency is most appropriate?
Measures of Variability
} The fluctuation of scores about a central tendency is
called variability.
} We can use measures of variability to compare two sets
of scores.
} Although the means may be the same, the
distribution may be different.
} Measure of Variability
} Range
} Standard Deviation
} Variance
Range
} Range is the distance between two extreme scores.
} It informs us about the dispersion of our
distribution.
} The larger the range the larger the dispersion from the
mean value.
} Although the mean of the scores of two
distributions can be identical their ranges may be
different.
Drawbacks to the Range
} Good preliminary measure, but one single extreme value
can influence the range significantly.
} The calculation of the range is derived from the highest
and lowest values and doesn t tell us anything about
the variability of the different values.
Standard Deviation
} Defined as the variability of the scores around the mean
} Each score in a distribution varies from the mean by a
greater or lesser amount, except when the score is the
same as the mean.
} Deviations from the mean can be noted as either positive
or negative deviations from the mean.
} The average of these deviations would equal zero.
Standard Deviation (cont d)
} Large SD
} Small SD
Variance
} The variance and the closely-related standard
deviation are measures of how spread out a
distribution is.
Frequency Distribution Tables
Overview
} After collecting data, researchers are faced with pages of
unorganized numbers, stacks of survey responses, etc.
} The goal of descriptive statistics is to aggregate the
individual scores (datum) in a way that can be readily
summarized
} A frequency distribution table can be used to get
picture of how scores were distributed
Frequency Distributions
} A frequency distribution displays the number (or percent)
of individuals that obtained a particular score or fell in a
particular category
} As such, these tables provide a picture of where people
respond across the range of the measurement scale
} One goal is to determine where the majority of
respondents were located
When To Use Frequency Tables
} Frequency distributions and tables can be used to answer
all descriptive research questions
} It is important to always examine frequency distributions
on the IV and DV when answering comparative and
relationship questions
Three Components of a Frequency
Distribution Table
} Frequency
} the number of individuals that obtained a particular score (or
response)
} Percent
} The corresponding percentage of individuals that obtained a
particular score
} Cumulative Percent
} The percentage of individuals that fell at or below a particular
score (not relevant for nominal variables)
Age Recommend
Example 31 2
26 3
} What are the ages of 32 4
students in an online 37 5
course? 18 4
} Are students likely to 31 5
recommend the course 38 4
to others? 49 2
35 4
37 3
}Step 1: Input the Data 43 4
into SPSS 41 5
49 4
40 2
Example (cont d)
} Step 2: Run the Frequencies
} Analyze à Descriptive Statistics à Frequencies
} Move variables to the Variables box (select the variables
and click on the arrow).
} Click OK.
Example
} Frequency distribution showing the ages of students who
took the online course
Example (cont d)
} Student responses when asked whether or not they
would recommend the online course to others
} Most would recommend the course
Running Descriptive Statistics
Example
} Are there differences in the anxiety levels of students
who have had statistics before versus students who have
never had statistics?
Example (cont d)
} Step 1: Input the data into SPSS
Stats History Anxiety
Score
1 95
1 85
1 65
1 90
1 85
2 65
2 45
2 35
2 75
2 65
Example (cont d)
} Step 2: Run the descriptive statistics
} Analyze à Compare Meansà Means
} Anxiety = Dependent List
} Stats History = Independent List
} Click Options
} Move Median over
} Move Minimum over
} Move Maximum over
} Click Continue
} Click OK
Example (cont d)
Example (cont d)
} Step 3: Create a Histogram for Anxiety with a normal
curve option
} Graphs à Legacy Dialogs à Histogram
} Variable = anxiety
} Check the Display normal curve check box
} Click Ok
Histogram for Anxiety
Example (cont d)
} Step 4: Write up the results
} Descriptive statistics revealed that students who had previous
experience with statistics (M = 57.00, SD = 16.43) had lower
anxiety at the beginning of the semester than students who did
not have any previous experience with statistics (M = 84.00, SD
= 11.40) .
Module 3 Summary
} Measures of Central Tendency
} Measures of Variability
} Frequency Distributions
} Running Descriptive Statistics
Review Activity and Quiz
} Please complete the Module 3 Review Activity:
Descriptive Statistics Terminology located in
Module 3.
} Upon completion of the Review Activity, please complete
the Module 3 Quiz.
} Please note that all modules in this course build on one
another; as a result, completion of the Module 3 Review
Activity and Module 3 Quiz are required before moving
on to Module 4.
} You can complete the review activities and quizzes as
many times as you like.
Upcoming Modules
} Module 1: Introduction to Statistics
} Module 2: Introduction to SPSS
} Module 3: Descriptive Statistics
} Module 4: Inferential Statistics
} Module 5: Correlation
} Module 6: t-Tests
} Module 7: ANOVAs
} Module 8: Linear Regression
} Module 9: Nonparametric Procedures