1- Epistemic and deontic modality:

Modality refers to opinion or judgment of the speaker on

the content and speech function of the clause. Halliday
(1994: 88) notes that modality is the intermediate degrees
between the positive or the negative poles. Further, he says
(1994: 356) modality refers to the area of meaning that lies
between yes and no -- the intermediate ground between
positive and negative polarity.
Modality in English can be realized in various linguistic
units as follows:
1-Modals
The unmarked type of modality is expressed in such overt
modal operators as must, can, could, may, might, will,
would, shall, should and ought
. The meaning they carry may vary depending on the
context.
a. Students must abide by the regulations of the university.
(obligation)
b. At midnight he must have been sleeping soundly.
(Probability)
c. Nobody can lift such a heavy box. (Ability)
e. You can go with your mother to visit your grandma.
(Permission)

2- Modal Adjunct (Adverbial phrase):

Modality may also be expressed by adjuncts such as
certainly, definitely, probably, possibly, perhaps, maybe,
surely, always, usually, obviously, etc.
a. Probably, he comes to her house today.
b. Certainly, the examination will be held next week.
c. Possibly, the earthquake happens again today
3- Lexical Verbs
Some lexical verbs may also express modality such as
allow, beg, believe, command, forbid, guarantee, guess,
promise, suggest, warn, wonder, wish, think, suppose, etc.
a. The Principal warned that the students submit their
assignment soon.
b.I think he can solve the problem himself.
[Link] suppose that all the students’ works are fair
Downing and Locke (1992) differentiate modality into two
main types: Epistemic Modalityand Deontic Modality.
Epistemic Modality
Epistemic was derived from the Greek word epistēmē
‘knowledge’. Thus, epistemic modality is related to a
speaker’s knowledge on the proposition. The degree of
certainty on the knowledge of a proposition may fall under
several grades: certain, probable and possible. So, epistemic
modality may be defined as the use of modality which is
based on the speaker's evaluation and judgment in relation
to the degree of confidence of the knowledge on a
proposition.
1- Epistemic Certainty
Epistemic certainty is commonly expressed with the modal
operators must and will.
a. The bread must be well-cooked. It has been grilled for
fifteen minutes.
[Link] father will be disappointed as he has not completed
his study after five years

Modal Adjunct
A number of modal adjuncts may carry the meaning of
epistemic certainty such as certainly, definitely, surely, etc.
a. The food is certainly well-cooked. It has been boiling for
twenty minutes.
[Link] father is definitely disappointed as he has not
completed his study after five years.
[Link] boy will surely be successful for his being diligent
and perseverance.

2- Epistemic Probability
Epistemic probability conveys the median degree of
confidence based on the speaker’s knowledge on the
proposition. Linguistic properties which may express
epistemic probability are described below.
Modal
The modal operators should and ought to may convey
epistemic probability.
a. At midnight he should have been sleeping soundly.
[Link] teacher is punctual and it is eight o’clock now so the
class ought to have started.
Modal Adjunct
The modal adjuncts which express epistemic probability are
probably, perhaps, and maybe.
a. Probably, he comes to her house today.
[Link], the examination will be held next week.
.Lexical Verbs
The lexical verbs guess, think, and suppose may express
epistemic probability.
a. He thinks he would pass in the subject.
[Link] suppose that all the students’ works are fair.

Epistemic Possibility
Epistemic possibility conveys the lowest degree of
confidence based on the speaker’s knowledge on the
proposition. It can be expressed by various linguistic
properties as presented below.
[Link]
Epistemic possibility is expressed in such overt modal
operators as can, could, may, and might.
a. It may rain this afternoon.

[Link] Adjunct
Modal adjuncts which may express epistemic possibility are
possibly, perhaps, and maybe.
a. Maybe, he comes to her house today.
[Link], the examination will be held next week.
[Link], the earthquake happens again today.
Lexical Verbs171
lexical verbs may also express epistemic possibility such as
guess, wonder, think, suppose, etc.
a. The Principal wondered whether Jack could pass the final
exam.
[Link] supposed that most students would drop out as they
had failed in the mid test. But in fact, their marks
in the final test improved quite considerably.

Deontic Modality
The term deontic was derived from the Greek word deont-,
deon meaning ‘which is obligatory’; but, this word is
adopted as a term which refers to a type of modality which
covers obligation and permission. Deontic modality
indicates whether the proposition expressed by a
command is obligatory, advisable or permissible
according to some normative background such as
law, morality, convention, etc.
The meanings of deontic modality are classified on the
basis of the degree of obligation; thus they may be
differentiated into: necessity, advisability and possibility
(permission).
[Link] Necessity
Deontic necessity conveys the highest degree of obligation
of a command and it can be expressed in various linguistic
properties such as:
[Link]: Deontic necessity may be expressed with the
modal operators must and have to.
a. You must submit your assignment next week by the
latest.
[Link] have to be available in the class before the lecturer
comes.
Clause with Adjective
Deontic necessity can also be realized in a clause
with the adjectives compulsory, obligatory, necessary
and urgent followed by either an infinitive or a that-clause.
a. It is compulsory for you to send your grandma to
hospital soon.
[Link] is urgent that you send your grandma to hospital soon.
Clause with Past Participle
Deontic necessity can also be realized in a clause with the
past participles required and obliged followed by either an
infinitive or a that-clause.
a. You are required to send your grandma to hospital soon.
[Link] is required that you send your grandma to hospital.
[Link] are obliged to abide by the regulations in this country.
Deontic Advisability
Deontic advisability conveys the median degree of
obligation of a command and the linguistic properties which
may express such meanings are given below.
Modal
The modal operators which convey deontic advisability are
should and ought to.
a. In monsoon you should always carry an umbrella with
you.
[Link] ought to examine your vehicle before you go far.
[Link] with Adjective
Deontic advisability can also be realized in a
clause with the adjective advisable followed by either an
infinitive or a that-clause.
a. It is advisable for you to prepare yourselves well before
the exam.
[Link] is advisable that you prepare yourselves well before the
exam.
Clause with Past Participle
Deontic advisability can also be realized in a clause with
the past participles supposed, advised, and suggested
followed by either an infinitive or a that-clause.
a. You are supposed to prepare yourselves before the exam.
[Link] is suggested that you prepare yourselves before the
exam.
[Link] Possibility
Deontic possibility conveys the lowest degree of obligation
of a command so that it implies the sense of permission. It
may also be expressed in several linguistic properties as
follows.
[Link]
The modal operators which may convey deontic permission
are may and can.
a. You may bring your text books in the exam room
b. Any question that you have can be found in the web.
[Link] with Adjective
Deontic possibility can also be realized in a clause with the
adjective possible.
a. It is possible for you to attend a lecture without a note
book.
[Link] is possible that you attend a lecture without a note book.
2- Types of mood:
What Is Mood in English Grammar?
Mood in English grammar describes the attitude or intention
expressed by the verb in a sentence. It shows whether you
are stating a fact, asking a question, giving an order,
expressing a wish, or talking about a condition. Learning
moods helps you understand and create different sentence
types in English.
 3-Finite and Nonfinite Clauses
These two varieties of clauses are determined on the basis
of the verb form they contain:
Finite Clauses: Contain a verb in a specific tense with a
direct subject.
Non-Finite Clauses: Normally contain verbs in a base or
non-tense form without a direct subject.

1. Understanding Finite Clauses

A finite clause is a clause in which the verb shows tense,
mood, and sometimes agreement with its subject. For
example:

She went to the store because she needed bread. (went –

past tense)
He runs every morning. (runs – present tense)
Will you be coming to the party tomorrow? (will be coming
– future tense)
Structure of Finite Clauses
The structure of a finite clause always includes a subject
and a predicate:

Subject: A noun phrase that determines who or what

performs the action in the clause.
Predicate: Contains the verb and any other elements such as
objects, compliments or adverbials.

2. Types of Finite Clauses

Finite clauses can function as main (independent) clauses or
subordinate (dependent) clauses:

Main Clauses: Clauses that can function independently as

complete sentences. Eg: She loves swimming.
Subordinate Clauses: Clauses that are embedded within
larger structures, often serving as complements or modifiers
to other components of the sentence. Eg: She loves
swimming because it keeps her fit.

Understanding Non-Finite Clauses

Non-finite clauses are clauses that do not show tense. The
verb in a non-finite clause is in a base form, infinitive form,
or -ing / -ed form (past participle). For example:

To exercise is beneficial for health. (infinitive form)

Spilled milk requires immediate cleaning. (past participle)
I enjoy painting landscapes. (-ing form)
Structure of Non-Finite Clauses
The structure of a non-finite clause differs from that of a
finite clause as it normally does not have a subject directly
linked to it. However, it still contains a verb (in a non-tense
form) and potentially, objects, complements, or adverbials.

4. Types of Non-Finite Clauses

Based on the form of verb used, non-finite clauses are
subdivided into three:

1-Infinitives: These are clauses that use the base form of the
verb, often with ‘to’. Eg: He loves to paint.
2-Gerunds: These are clauses that use the verb in its –ing
form. Eg: He loves painting pictures.
3-Participles: These are clauses that use the verb in its past
participle form (-ed or irregular form). Eg: Stirred
constantly, the sauce did not burn.

Participles are non-finite verbs. (A non-finite verb is a verb

that, by itself, does not show tense. This means if you look
at just a participle, you cannot tell if you're dealing with
the past tense, present tense, or future tense.)
Using Finite and Non-Finite Clauses
Both finite and non-finite clauses find their use in various
patterns of sentences:

Finite clauses are vital in maintaining the main structure of

a simple sentence or a compound sentence. They are also
key in complex sentences, establishing a relationship
between main and subordinate ideas.
Non-finite clauses are crucial in providing added
information or detail about an activity or state. Their
flexible structure allows them to fulfill a variety of
grammatical roles in sentences.

4- Semantic roles of the agent and the patient

In a sentence, the agent is the entity performing the action,
while the patient is the entity undergoing the action.
For example, in the sentence "John kicked the ball," John is
the agent, and the ball is the patient.
The semantic roles of the agent and patient are determined
by the verb and the context of the sentence.
In passive constructions, the roles may change, but the
essence of the action remains the same. Understanding
these roles is crucial for interpreting sentence meaning and
enhancing communication

5- Copula and non-copula constructions

The concept of copula and non-copula constructions is a
significant aspect of linguistics, particularly in the study of
sentence structure and meaning. Copula and non-copula
constructions refer to the use of the verb BE, action verbs
and non-action (stative verbs).

Copula constructions:
‘Copula’ is the Latin word for ‘link, connection’. The
motivation for the different label is that the copula
constructions do not describe situations in which one
participant performs an action, possibly on another person
or thing. Rather, the verb in the copula constructions merely
links the subject noun phrase with another phrase or links
the subject of a sentence to a subject complement, such as
in "The sky is blue," where "is" serves as the copula.
Non-copula constructions, on the other hand, do not use a
copula to link the subject and complement. Most verbs used
in the non-copula constructions are action verbs.
Ex. He organized the documents.
He played soccer.
Non-copula verbs need verb do to make the interrogative
and negative forms.
E.g He wins two medals
He does not win two medals
Does he win two medals?

Some verbs can serve as action or non-action depending on

the meaning:
Example:
He looked for his sister. (action verb) (non-copula)
He looked happy (non-action) (copula) (linking)

6-Ambiguous sentences due to syntactic structure

Ambiguous sentences arise from the structure of the
sentence, where the arrangement of words and phrases can
lead to multiple interpretations. This type of ambiguity,
known as syntactic ambiguity, can complicate
communication in both human language and natural
language processing applications. Here are some examples
of sentences that exhibit syntactic ambiguity:
- "The professor said on Monday he would give an
exam.": This sentence can mean either that it was on
Monday that the professor told the class about the exam or
that the exam would be given on Monday.
- "The chicken is ready to eat.": This sentence can mean
either that the chicken is cooked and can be eaten now or
that the chicken is ready to be fed.
7-Main and subordinate clauses (different types)
Main clauses can stand alone as complete sentences, while
subordinate clauses cannot and depend on main clauses for
meaning.
Main Clauses
A main clause (or independent clause) is a group of words
that contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete
thought. It can stand alone as a sentence. Here are some key
points about main clauses:
Definition: A main clause can function independently and
conveys a complete idea.
Examples:
"She enjoys reading."
"They went to the park."
"The sun is shining."
Subordinate Clauses
A subordinate clause (or dependent clause) contains a
subject and a verb but does not express a complete thought.
It cannot stand alone as a sentence and relies on a main
clause to provide context. Subordinate clauses are
introduced by subordinating conjunctions (e.g., because,
although, when) or relative pronouns (e.g., who, which).
Types of Subordinate Clauses
Noun Clauses: Act as a noun in the sentence. They can
serve as subjects, objects, or complements.
Example: "What she said surprised me." (Here, "What she
said" is the subject of the sentence.)
Adjective Clauses: Modify a noun or pronoun in the main
clause. They often begin with relative pronouns.
Example: "The book that you lent me is fascinating." (The
clause "that you lent me" describes "the book.")
Adverbial Clauses: Modify a verb, adjective, or adverb,
providing information about time, reason, condition, etc.
Example: "She ran quickly because it was late." (The clause
"because it was late" explains why she ran quickly.)
8-Case, gender and mood in grammar
In grammar, case, gender, and mood are essential
grammatical categories that define the function and
relationship of words within a sentence.
Case refers to the grammatical function of a noun or
pronoun, indicating its role in the sentence (e.g., subject,
object, possessive).
Case in Nouns or pronouns
Now that we’ve got gender down, let’s talk about case in
nouns. Think of “case” as the different jobs that nouns do in
a sentence. They might be (the subject), (the object), or
the owner of something (the possessive case). Let’s dive
into these roles.
1. Nominative Case (Subject Case):
In the nominative case, the noun is the subject of the
sentence—it’s the one doing the action.
Examples:
 The cat chased the mouse.
 She loves pizza.
Here, the cat and She are the ones performing the action, so
they’re in the nominative case.
Practical Tip:
To spot a nominative case noun, look for the noun that’s
doing something in the sentence.

2. Objective Case (Object Case): The Action Receiver

In the objective case, the noun is on the receiving end of
the action.
Examples:
 The dog chased the ball.
 Mona invited Sarah to the party.
Here, the ball and Sarah are receiving the action, so they’re
in the objective case.
Practical Tip:
If the noun is getting the action (like being chased or
invited), it’s in the objective case. Look for who or what
the action is happening to.

3. Possessive Case: The Owners

In the possessive case, the noun shows ownership.
Examples:
 This is John’s bike.
Here, John owns something, so they’re in the possessive
case.
Practical Tip:
To find the possessive case, look for the noun that shows
ownership. It’s usually easy to spot because it’ll have an
apostrophe ’s. If you see something like Bob’s or the girl’s,
it’s possessive!

Gender
Gender categorizes nouns based on their association with
the sexes (masculine, feminine, neuter) and affects the
pronouns used with them.
Gender in Nouns
Let’s start with gender. In English, nouns can fall into one
of four gender categories: Masculine, Feminine, Neuter,
and Common Gender.
1. Masculine Nouns:
Masculine nouns refer to male people. We use “he” with
masculine nouns.
Examples:
 man, king, actor, uncle
boy, father, brother

2. Feminine Nouns:
Feminine nouns are all about the ladies! These nouns refer
to female people. We use ‘she’ with these nouns.
Examples:
 woman, queen, actress, aunt
 girl, mother, sister, princess

3. Neuter Nouns:
These nouns refer to objects or things that don’t have a
gender.
Examples:
 book, car, computer, tree, house
 pencil, desk, apple, rock

4. Common Gender Nouns:

These nouns can refer to both genders, depending on
context.
Examples:
 teacher, doctor, friend, cousin, parent
 student, baby, child, artist, sibling
Mood:
Mood indicates the speaker's attitude towards the subject of
the sentence, whether it is expressing fact, possibility, or
necessity. Grammatical mood is a feature of verbs that
expresses the speaker's attitude toward the action or state
described by the verb, indicating whether it is a fact,
command, wish, or hypothetical situation.
Definition of Grammatical Mood
Grammatical mood refers to the verb forms that convey the
speaker's intention regarding the action or state of being. It
allows speakers to express various modalities, such as
certainty, possibility, necessity, or commands. Mood is
distinct from tense and aspect, which relate to the timing
and nature of the action, respectively.
There are several moods commonly recognized in English
grammar, including:
1-Indicative Mood: Used to make factual statements or ask
questions. For example: "She is reading a book." or "Are
you coming to the party?".
2-Imperative Mood: Used to give commands, requests, or
instructions. For example: "Close the door." or "Please sit
down.".
3-Subjunctive Mood: Used to express wishes, hypothetical
situations, or conditions contrary to fact. For example: "I
wish he were here." or "If I were rich, I would travel the
world.".

4-Interrogative Mood: Used to ask questions. This mood is

often formed by inverting the subject and the auxiliary verb.
For example: "Is she coming?".

5-Conditional Mood: Used to express conditions and their

consequences. For example: "If it rains, we will stay
indoors."
These categories are fundamental to understanding how
words interact and convey meaning in language.
9-Aspect, tense and voice:
Aspect, tense, and voice are fundamental grammatical
concepts that describe how actions are expressed in a
sentence:
Aspect refers to the way an action unfolds over time,
indicating whether it is ongoing, completed, or repeated.
English has four aspects: simple, progressive, perfect, and
perfect-progressive.
The simple aspect expresses single actions, habits, and
routines. For the formation of the simple present and simple
past verbs, please refer to the charts in the “Tense” section.

The progressive aspect expresses incomplete or ongoing

actions or states at a specific time. For example, the use of
the progressive aspect in I am floating the book indicates
that I started floating the book in the past and am still
floating the book in the present and presumably the future.
The formula for forming the present progressive is [simple
present “to be” + present participle]. The formula for
forming the past progressive is [simple past “to be” +
present participle].

The perfect aspect expresses the consequences resulting

from a previous action or state. For example, the use of the
perfect aspect in I have floated the book focuses on the end
result of my floating the book (my having floated the book)
as opposed to the process of floating the book. The formula
for forming the present perfect is [simple present “to have”
+ past participle]. The formula for forming the past perfect
is [simple past “to have” + past participle].

The perfect-progressive aspect expresses incomplete or

ongoing actions or states that began in the past and continue
to a specific time. For example, the use of the perfect-
progressive aspect in I had been floating the book indicates
that I started floating the book in the past and continued to
float the book until a specific point in time at which I
stopped floating the book. The formula for forming the
present perfect-progressive is [simple present “to have” +
past participle “to be” + present participle]. The formula for
forming the past perfect-progressive is [simple past “to
have” + past participle “to be” + present participle].
Present participles, or -ing forms, are formed by adding the
suffix -ing to the base form of a verb. For example, the
present participles of eat and read are eating and reading.
Past participles, or -en forms, are formed 1.) identically to
the -ed past tense, 2.) by adding the suffix -en to the base
form, or 3.) with a stem change. For example, the past
participles of study, take, and begin are studied, taken, and
begun.
Tense:
Tense specifies when an action occurs, with categories like
present, past, and future. In English, tenses can be simple or
compound, with the simple past and present being the most
common.
Voice describes the relationship between the verb and its
subject, with two main types: active voice (the subject
performs the action) and passive voice (the subject receives
the action). These concepts work together to convey the
nature of the action in a sentence, influencing the meaning
and grammatical structure.

References
Epistemic & Deontic Modality in Linguistics
Understanding Non-Copula Constructions | PDF
Gender and Case in Nouns - English Professor