SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

PHYSICS
Senior Secondary Two (SS2)
SECOND Term | Weeks 1 – 10
Sound Waves | Molecular Theory | Electromagnetic Waves | Gravitational Field | Electric Fields
Student Name: ___________________________________
Class: _________ Arm: ______ Session: _____________
School: _______________________________________________

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

WEEK 1
SOUND WAVES I
Sources of Sound | Transmission of Sound | Speed of Sound | Characteristics of Sound

1.1 Introduction to Sound

Sound is a form of energy that is produced by vibrating objects and travels as a longitudinal mechanical wave through a
medium (solid, liquid, or gas). Sound cannot travel through a vacuum. The study of sound is called ACOUSTICS.

1.2 Sources of Sound

Sound is produced whenever an object vibrates rapidly. The vibrating object transfers energy to the surrounding medium,
creating compressions (high pressure) and rarefactions (low pressure) that travel outward as a sound wave.

Source Category Examples Mechanism of Sound Production

Vibrating strings Guitar, violin, piano Plucked or bowed string vibrates;
transfers energy to air
Vibrating columns of air Flute, trumpet, organ pipe Blown air column vibrates inside
pipe
Vibrating membranes Drum, loudspeaker, eardrum Stretched membrane vibrates back
and forth
Vibrating solid rods/plates Bell, tuning fork, xylophone Struck solid vibrates and sets air
vibrating
Vocal cords Human voice Airstream causes vocal folds to
vibrate
Electrical oscillations Buzzer, sonar, ultrasound machines Electrical signals drive a transducer
to vibrate

1.3 Transmission of Sound

DEFINITION: Transmission of Sound
Sound requires a MATERIAL MEDIUM (solid, liquid, or gas) to travel. It is transmitted as longitudinal waves — the
particles of the medium oscillate back and forth in the same direction as the wave travels, creating alternating
compressions and rarefactions.

DIAGRAM: Sound Wave — Compressions and Rarefactions

Vibrating tuning fork Longitudinal wave

============

(fork) C R C R C R C = Compression

|| |||| .. |||| .. |||| .. R = Rarefaction

<==tines==> |||| .. |||| .. |||| ..

|| |||| .. |||| .. |||| .. Particles move

============ |||| .. |||| .. |||| .. back and forth

>>>>>>>>>> wave travels >>>>>>>> (not sideways!)

Transverse wave (for comparison):

/\ /\ /\ /\ /\ Particles move perpendicular to wave travel

/ \ / \ / \ (e.g. water waves, light waves — NOT sound!)

/ \/ \/ \

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

KEY FACT: Sound CANNOT travel through a vacuum. This was demonstrated by Robert Boyle's bell-in-jar experiment: as
air is pumped out of the jar, the ringing bell becomes inaudible even though it can still be seen vibrating.

DIAGRAM: Bell-in-Jar Experiment (Vacuum Demonstration)

___________________________________________

/ \

| +----+ |

| |BELL| <- still vibrating |

| +----+ |

| | |

| AIR BEING PUMPED OUT ====> VACUUM |

|___________________________________________|

| |

to vacuum pump |

Sound becomes INAUDIBLE

as air is removed —

proving sound needs medium!

1.4 Speed of Sound in Different Media

Sound travels at different speeds depending on the medium. It travels fastest in solids (tightly packed molecules transmit
vibration quickly) and slowest in gases (molecules are far apart).

FORMULA
v=f×λ

Where: v = speed of sound (m/s)

f = frequency (Hz)
λ = wavelength (m)

Approximate speeds of sound at 25°C:

In air (gas): 340 m/s (varies with temperature)
In water (liquid): 1,500 m/s
In steel (solid): 5,100 m/s
In rubber: 60 m/s (very slow — rubber absorbs vibration)

Effect of temperature on speed in air:

v = 331 + 0.6T (where T = temperature in °C)
At 0°C: v = 331 m/s
At 20°C: v = 331 + 0.6(20) = 331 + 12 = 343 m/s

Medium Type Speed (m/s) Reason

Air (0°C) Gas 331 Molecules far apart; slow
energy transfer
Air (25°C) Gas 346 Higher temp = more
kinetic energy
Water Liquid 1,500 Molecules closer; faster
transfer
Sea water Liquid 1,530 Salt increases density
slightly

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

Iron Solid 5,120 Tightly packed atoms;

very fast transfer
Glass Solid 5,640 Strong molecular bonds
Steel Solid 5,960 Very rigid lattice structure

WORKED EXAMPLE
Q1: A tuning fork vibrates at 440 Hz. If the speed of sound is 340 m/s,
find the wavelength of the sound produced.
v = fλ => λ = v/f = 340/440 = 0.773 m

Q2: A ship sends an ultrasound pulse and receives the echo from the seabed after
0.4 s. If speed of sound in water = 1500 m/s, find the depth of the sea.
Total distance = v × t = 1500 × 0.4 = 600 m
Depth = 600/2 = 300 m (pulse travels down AND back)

Q3: Calculate the speed of sound in air at 30°C.

v = 331 + 0.6 × 30 = 331 + 18 = 349 m/s

1.5 Characteristics (Properties) of Sound

Three main characteristics distinguish musical notes from each other:

Characteristic Definition Depends On Example

Pitch Highness or lowness of a Frequency (higher f = A soprano voice has
sound higher pitch) higher pitch than a bass
voice
Loudness (Intensity) Amount of sound energy Amplitude (larger amp = Shouting is louder than
reaching the ear per louder sound) whispering
second
Timbre (Quality) Distinctive tone colour that Waveform / harmonic Guitar and piano playing
distinguishes instruments content same note sound different

FORMULA
Intensity (I) of sound:
I = P / A (Power per unit area)
I = P / 4πr² (for a point source spreading in all directions)

SI Unit: W/m²
Sound Intensity Level: L = 10 log₁₀(I/I₀) in decibels (dB)
I₀ = 10⁻¹² W/m² (threshold of hearing)

Frequency ranges:
Infrasound: f < 20 Hz (below human hearing)
Audible: 20 Hz ≤ f ≤ 20,000 Hz (human range)
Ultrasound: f > 20,000 Hz (above human hearing)

DIAGRAM: Characteristics of Sound — Waveforms

LOW PITCH (low frequency) HIGH PITCH (high frequency)

~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

~~~~~ ~ ~

<-----long wavelength-----> <-short wavelength->

QUIET (small amplitude) LOUD (large amplitude)

~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~

~~~~~~~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~~

small waves up/down large waves up/down

CLASS EXERCISE
1. Define sound and explain why it cannot travel through a vacuum.
Describe the bell-in-jar experiment to support your answer.

2. Distinguish between longitudinal and transverse waves.

State which type sound belongs to and explain.

3. Calculate the wavelength of a sound wave with frequency 256 Hz

if the speed of sound in air is 340 m/s.

4. The speed of sound in air at 0°C is 331 m/s.

Find the speed of sound in air at 45°C.

5. State and explain THREE characteristics of sound.

Which characteristic depends on: (a) frequency (b) amplitude?

6. A thunder is heard 4 seconds after lightning is seen.

If the speed of sound in air is 340 m/s, how far away is the lightning?

7. Explain why sound travels faster in steel than in air, using the particle theory.

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

WEEK 2
SOUND WAVES II
Noise & Music | Forced Vibration & Resonance | Harmonics & Overtones | Stationary Waves

2.1 Noise and Music

Feature Noise Music
Waveform Irregular, random Regular, periodic
Frequency Irregular mixture Definite, recognisable frequency
Pleasantness Unpleasant, unwanted Pleasant to the ear
Examples Traffic noise, machinery Piano, guitar, singing
Frequency variation No pattern Systematic pattern (harmonics)

DIAGRAM: Noise vs Music — Waveforms

NOISE (irregular waveform): MUSIC (regular waveform):

___/|__/\ /|\___/\_ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~

| \/ | \ \__ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~

_/|/ |\/ \__/ |\__ ~ ~ ~ ~

irregular, no pattern regular, repeating pattern

2.2 Forced Vibration and Resonance

DEFINITION: Forced Vibration
Forced vibration occurs when an object is made to vibrate by an external periodic force at a frequency that may or
may not be its natural frequency. The vibrating object takes on the frequency of the external force.

DEFINITION: Resonance
Resonance occurs when the frequency of an external force exactly matches the natural frequency of an object. At
resonance, the amplitude of vibration is at its MAXIMUM. Energy is transferred most efficiently at resonance.

Every object has a NATURAL FREQUENCY — the frequency at which it vibrates freely after being disturbed. Resonance
happens when driven at this exact frequency.

DIAGRAM: Resonance — Amplitude vs Frequency Graph

Amplitude

A | |

m | |

p | /|\

l | /|\

i | / | \

t | / | \

u |_________/ | \___________

d | |

e +----+---------+---------+------> Frequency

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

f1 f0 f2

Natural frequency (f0)

Maximum amplitude = RESONANCE

Key: Amplitude peaks sharply when driving frequency = natural frequency

Real-life examples of resonance:

1. Soldiers break step when crossing a bridge (marching frequency could match bridge's natural frequency — causing
resonance and possible collapse).
2. Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapse (1940): Wind caused resonance in the bridge.
3. Tuning a radio: Adjusting the circuit's natural frequency to match incoming signal frequency.
4. Microwave oven: Microwaves resonate with water molecules at 2.45 GHz, heating food.
5. Opera singer shattering a glass: Singer's voice at the glass's natural frequency causes resonant vibration until the glass
cracks.

2.3 Harmonics and Overtones

DEFINITION: Fundamental Frequency (1st Harmonic)
The lowest frequency at which a string or pipe vibrates naturally. Also called the first harmonic (f₁). The
fundamental produces the strongest sound.

FORMULA
For a string of length L fixed at both ends:
Fundamental (1st harmonic): f₁ = v / 2L
2nd harmonic (1st overtone): f₂ = 2f₁ = v / L
3rd harmonic (2nd overtone): f₃ = 3f₁ = 3v / 2L
nth harmonic: fn = n × f₁

v = speed of wave in string = sqrt(T/μ)

T = tension in string (N), μ = mass per unit length (kg/m)

Relationship: Harmonics are integer multiples of the fundamental.

Harmonic number (n) = 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
Overtone number = 0 (fundamental), 1st overtone = 2nd harmonic, etc.

DIAGRAM: Harmonics in a String Fixed at Both Ends

1st HARMONIC (Fundamental) — 1 antinode, 2 nodes:

N --- /\ --- N f₁ = v/2L

| | 1 loop

2nd HARMONIC (1st overtone) — 2 antinodes, 3 nodes:

N-- /\ --N-- /\ --N f₂ = 2f₁ = v/L

| | 2 loops

3rd HARMONIC (2nd overtone) — 3 antinodes, 4 nodes:

N- /\ -N- /\ -N- /\ -N f₃ = 3f₁ = 3v/2L

| | 3 loops

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

N = node (zero amplitude) /\ = antinode (max amplitude)

L = length of string = fixed distance

WORKED EXAMPLE
Q1: A string of length 0.8 m vibrates with a speed of 320 m/s.
Find the fundamental frequency and the first three harmonics.
f₁ = v/2L = 320 / (2 × 0.8) = 320 / 1.6 = 200 Hz
f₂ = 2 × 200 = 400 Hz (2nd harmonic / 1st overtone)
f₃ = 3 × 200 = 600 Hz (3rd harmonic / 2nd overtone)

Q2: A guitar string has a fundamental frequency of 330 Hz.

What is the frequency of the 4th harmonic?
f₄ = 4 × f₁ = 4 × 330 = 1,320 Hz

2.4 Stationary (Standing) Waves

DEFINITION: Stationary Wave
A stationary (standing) wave is formed when two waves of equal frequency, amplitude, and wavelength travel in
opposite directions and superpose. Unlike progressive waves, stationary waves do NOT transfer energy along the
medium.

Stationary waves are formed in:

(a) Stretched strings — when a progressive wave reflects back from a fixed end and superposes with the incident wave.
(b) Air columns in pipes — reflections from closed or open ends.

DIAGRAM: Formation of a Stationary Wave

INCIDENT wave (moving right ->) and REFLECTED wave (moving left <-)

Incident: ~~> ~~> ~~> ~~>

Reflected: <~~ <~~ <~~ <~~

Result: STATIONARY WAVE

Antinodes (A) — maximum vibration: A A A

/|\ /|\ /|\

Nodes (N) — zero vibration: N-----N-----N-----N

no motion |

at nodes |

Distance between adjacent nodes = λ/2

Distance between adjacent antinodes = λ/2

Distance from node to nearest antinode = λ/4

Feature Progressive Wave Stationary Wave

Energy transfer Transfers energy in direction of Does NOT transfer energy

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

travel
Amplitude Same for all particles Varies: max at antinodes, zero at
nodes
Phase Particles at different phases Particles between two nodes vibrate
in phase
Formation Single wave traveling Two equal waves traveling in
opposite directions
Wavelength λ = distance between two crests λ = 2 × distance between adjacent
nodes

CLASS EXERCISE
1. Distinguish between noise and music. Give two features of each.

2. Define resonance and state its conditions.

Give THREE real-life examples of resonance.

3. A stretched string 1.2 m long vibrates at a wave speed of 480 m/s.

Find: (a) fundamental frequency (b) 2nd harmonic (c) 3rd harmonic

4. Define: (a) fundamental frequency (b) harmonic (c) overtone

What is the relationship between the 4th harmonic and the fundamental?

5. Explain the difference between a progressive wave and a stationary wave.

Use a table with at least FOUR differences.

6. What are nodes and antinodes in a stationary wave?

What is the distance between two adjacent nodes in terms of wavelength?

7. Explain why soldiers are ordered to break step when marching over a bridge.
WEEK 3
APPLICATION OF SOUND WAVES
Vibrations in Strings & Pipes | Wind, String & Percussion Instruments | Echoes | Hearing Aids

3.1 Vibrations in Strings

FORMULA
Fundamental frequency of a vibrating string:
f₁ = (1/2L) × sqrt(T/μ)

L = length of string (m)

T = tension in string (N)
μ = mass per unit length of string (kg/m) = m/L

1. Length L: Shorter string → higher pitch (f ∝ 1/L)

Factors that affect the pitch (frequency) of a string:

2. Tension T: Greater tension → higher pitch (f ∝ √T)

3. Mass/length: Thicker string → lower pitch (f ∝ 1/√μ)
4. Material: Denser material → lower pitch

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

WORKED EXAMPLE
Q1: A string of length 0.5 m has a linear mass density of 0.004 kg/m.
It is under tension of 100 N. Find the fundamental frequency.
f₁ = (1/2L) × sqrt(T/μ)
= (1 / (2 × 0.5)) × sqrt(100 / 0.004)
= 1 × sqrt(25,000)
= 1 × 158.1
= 158 Hz

Q2: A string vibrates at 200 Hz. If the tension is quadrupled (×4),

f ∝ √T → f₂/f₁ = √(T₂/T₁) = √4 = 2
find the new frequency (length and μ unchanged).

f₂ = 2 × 200 = 400 Hz

3.2 Vibrations in Pipes (Air Columns)

Pipe Type Harmonics Produced Fundamental Formula Notes
Closed pipe (one end Odd harmonics only: 1st, f₁ = v/4L Node at closed end,
closed) 3rd, 5th... antinode at open end
Open pipe (both ends All harmonics: 1st, 2nd, f₁ = v/2L Antinodes at both open
open) 3rd... ends

DIAGRAM: Vibrations in Open and Closed Pipes

OPEN PIPE (both ends open) — 1st harmonic:

A <------ L ------> A λ₁ = 2L

| | f₁ = v/2L

A = antinode at both open ends

OPEN PIPE — 2nd harmonic:

A --- N --- A --- N --- A λ₂ = L

| | f₂ = v/L = 2f₁

CLOSED PIPE (one end closed) — 1st harmonic:

N <-------- L -------> A λ₁ = 4L

| f₁ = v/4L

N = node at closed end, A = antinode at open end

CLOSED PIPE — 3rd harmonic (1st overtone):

N --- A --- N --- A --- N --- A λ₃ = 4L/3

| f₃ = 3v/4L = 3f₁

3.3 Musical Instruments

(a) String Instruments
Examples: Guitar, violin, cello, harp, piano. Sound is produced by vibrating strings. The string length, tension, and
thickness are varied to produce different notes. A resonance box amplifies the sound.

(b) Wind Instruments

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

Examples: Flute, clarinet, trumpet, organ, recorder. Sound is produced by a vibrating column of air inside a tube. The
length of the air column is varied (using valves, holes, or slides) to change pitch.
Open-pipe instruments (both ends open): Flute, recorder. Produce both odd and even harmonics.
Closed-pipe instruments (one end closed): Clarinet, stopped organ pipe. Produce only odd harmonics.

(c) Percussion Instruments

Examples: Drum, xylophone, bell, triangle. Sound is produced by striking a membrane, plate, or bar. The material's
properties and tension determine the pitch.

Instrument Type Examples How Sound is Produced How Pitch is Changed

String Guitar, violin String vibrates by Length, tension, string
plucking/bowing thickness
Wind (open pipe) Flute, recorder Vibrating air column (both Covering finger holes
ends open) changes column length
Wind (closed pipe) Clarinet, trumpet Vibrating air column (one Valves, slide, or reed
end closed) changes column length
Percussion Drum, xylophone Struck membrane or bar Tightening membrane;
vibrates different bar lengths

3.4 Echoes and Their Applications

DEFINITION: Echo
An echo is a reflected sound heard distinctly after the original sound. For an echo to be heard separately, the
reflecting surface must be at least 17 m away (since the human ear cannot distinguish sounds less than 0.1 s
apart, and sound travels 340 m/s × 0.1 s = 34 m total, so 34/2 = 17 m minimum).

FORMULA
For echo calculations:
d = (v × t) / 2

d = distance to reflecting surface (m)

v = speed of sound (m/s)
t = time between making sound and hearing echo (s)

Minimum distance for echo = 17 m (at 340 m/s)

DIAGRAM: Echo — Sound Reflection

Person makes sound Reflecting wall

(claps hands) (cliff, building)

O ========================> sound travels to wall

/|\ <======================== reflected back

Hears echo after time t

d=v×t/2

Example: If echo heard after 0.5 s, speed = 340 m/s:

d = 340 × 0.5 / 2 = 85 m

Application of Echo/Sound Reflection How It Works

SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging) Ultrasound pulses sent into water; time for echo gives

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

depth/distance of objects
Medical Ultrasound (scanning) High frequency sound reflects off tissues; used to
image organs, foetus in pregnancy
Echolocation (bats, dolphins) Animals emit ultrasound and use echoes to navigate
and detect prey
Acoustics of buildings Echo, reverberation, and sound reflection used in
design of concert halls and cinemas
Seismology Sound waves (seismic) reflect off rock layers to find oil
and mineral deposits

3.5 Hearing Aids

A hearing aid is a small electronic device worn in or behind the ear that amplifies sound for people with hearing difficulties.
Modern hearing aids work as follows:
1. A microphone detects incoming sound and converts it to electrical signals.
2. An amplifier increases the strength of the electrical signals.
3. A speaker (receiver) converts the amplified electrical signal back to sound.
4. A battery powers the device.

DIAGRAM: Block Diagram — Hearing Aid

Sound in Sound to ear

(from environment) (amplified)

| ^

v |

+-----------+ +-----------+ +-----------+ +----------+

| MICROPHONE| -> | AMPLIFIER | -> | PROCESSOR| -> | SPEAKER |

| | | | | | |(receiver)|

+-----------+ +-----------+ +-----------+ +----------+

+----------+

| BATTERY |

+----------+

CLASS EXERCISE
1. A string of length 60 cm is under tension of 200 N and has a linear density
of 0.002 kg/m. Find its fundamental frequency.

2. State and explain FOUR factors that affect the frequency of a vibrating string.

3. Calculate the fundamental frequency of:

(a) An open pipe of length 0.5 m (speed of sound = 340 m/s)
(b) A closed pipe of length 0.5 m (speed of sound = 340 m/s)
Comment on the difference in your answers.

4. Explain the difference between open and closed pipes in terms of the
harmonics they can produce.

5. A person shouts at a cliff and hears the echo 3 seconds later.

If the speed of sound is 340 m/s, how far away is the cliff?

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

6. Explain how SONAR is used to measure the depth of the ocean.

7. Describe, with a labelled block diagram, how a hearing aid works.

8. Classify the following instruments and explain how sound is produced in each:
Guitar, Trumpet, Drum, Xylophone, Flute, Violin

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

WEEK 4
MOLECULAR THEORY OF MATTER
Pressure in Fluids | Concept of Pressure | Pressure in Liquids | Pascal's Principle | Atmosphere & Gas Pressure

4.1 Concept of Pressure

DEFINITION: Pressure
Pressure is the force acting perpendicularly on a unit area of a surface. It is a scalar quantity. SI Unit: Pascal (Pa).
1 Pa = 1 N/m².

FORMULA
P=F/A

Where: P = pressure (Pa or N/m²)

F = perpendicular force (Newtons, N)
A = area over which force acts (m²)

Other units of pressure:

1 atmosphere (atm) = 101,325 Pa ≈ 101.3 kPa
1 bar = 100,000 Pa
1 mmHg = 133.3 Pa (millimetres of mercury)
760 mmHg = 1 atm

Note: Pressure increases when the same force is applied to a SMALLER area, and decreases when applied to a LARGER
area. This is why knife blades and needles have sharp edges — they concentrate force over a tiny area to create very
high pressure.

WORKED EXAMPLE
Q1: A man of weight 800 N stands on both feet. Each foot has area 0.025 m².
Find the pressure on the floor.
Total area = 2 × 0.025 = 0.05 m²
P = F/A = 800/0.05 = 16,000 Pa = 16 kPa

Q2: The same man stands on one foot. Find the new pressure.
A = 0.025 m²
P = 800/0.025 = 32,000 Pa = 32 kPa (doubled!)

4.2 Pressure in Liquids

DEFINITION: Liquid Pressure
Pressure in a liquid acts equally in all directions at the same depth, increases with depth, and depends on the
density of the liquid — not on the shape of the container.

FORMULA
P = ρgh

Where: P = pressure at depth h (Pa)

ρ = density of liquid (kg/m³)
g = acceleration due to gravity = 10 m/s²
h = depth below the surface (m)

Total pressure at depth h = atmospheric pressure + liquid pressure:

P_total = P_atm + ρgh

Common liquid densities:

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

Water: 1,000 kg/m³

Mercury: 13,600 kg/m³
Sea water: 1,025 kg/m³

DIAGRAM: Pressure in a Liquid — Key Features

+-------------------------------------------+

| |

|~~~~ water surface (P = P_atm) ~~~~~~~~~~~~|

| |

| depth = h1 |

| -- -- -- P1 = ρgh1 -- -- -- |

| |

| depth = h2 (h2 > h1) |

| == == == P2 = ρgh2 == == == | P2 > P1

| |

+-------------------------------------------+

IMPORTANT RULES about liquid pressure:

1. Pressure acts equally in ALL directions at the same depth

2. Pressure INCREASES with depth (P ∝ h)

3. Pressure INCREASES with liquid density (P ∝ ρ)

4. Pressure is INDEPENDENT of the shape of the container

5. Connected liquids at the same level have the same pressure

(Pascal's connected vessels principle)

WORKED EXAMPLE
Q1: Find the pressure at the bottom of a swimming pool 3 m deep.
(ρ_water = 1000 kg/m³, g = 10 m/s², P_atm = 101,000 Pa)
P_liquid = ρgh = 1000 × 10 × 3 = 30,000 Pa
P_total = 101,000 + 30,000 = 131,000 Pa = 131 kPa

Q2: A diver is 20 m below sea water (ρ = 1025 kg/m³). Find total pressure.
P_liquid = 1025 × 10 × 20 = 205,000 Pa
P_total = 101,325 + 205,000 = 306,325 Pa ≈ 306 kPa ≈ 3 atm

4.3 Pascal's Principle

DEFINITION: Pascal's Principle
When pressure is applied to an enclosed incompressible fluid, the pressure is transmitted equally in all directions
throughout the fluid. This is the basis of hydraulic machines.

FORMULA
For a hydraulic press/lift:
P₁ = P₂ (pressure is equal throughout)
F₁/A₁ = F₂/A₂
F₂ = F₁ × (A₂/A₁)

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

F₁ = effort force (N), A₁ = area of small piston (m²)

F₂ = load force (N), A₂ = area of large piston (m²)

Mechanical Advantage = F₂/F₁ = A₂/A₁

DIAGRAM: Hydraulic Press — Pascal's Principle

F₁ (small force) F₂ (large force — output)

| |

v ^

+----+ +----+----+

| P1 | | P2 |

| A1 | | A2 |

| (small piston) | (large piston)|

+----+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~+----+----+

HYDRAULIC FLUID (oil)

A1 << A2 => F2 >> F1

Same pressure transmitted through fluid

Small force in → LARGE force out

Applications: Car hydraulic brakes, hydraulic jack,

hydraulic press, forklift, power steering

WORKED EXAMPLE
Q: A hydraulic jack has a small piston of area 5 cm² and a large piston
of area 200 cm². A force of 50 N is applied to the small piston.
Find: (a) the pressure in the fluid (b) the force on the large piston

(a) P = F₁/A₁ = 50 / (5 × 10⁻⁴) = 50/0.0005 = 100,000 Pa

(b) F₂ = P × A₂ = 100,000 × (200 × 10⁻⁴) = 100,000 × 0.02 = 2,000 N
MA = F₂/F₁ = 2000/50 = 40

4.4 Atmospheric Pressure and Gas Pressure

The atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding the Earth. The weight of this air pressing down creates atmospheric
pressure. At sea level: P_atm ≈ 101,325 Pa = 760 mmHg = 1 atm.
Atmospheric pressure is measured using a BAROMETER.
Gas pressure is measured using a MANOMETER or PRESSURE GAUGE.

DIAGRAM: Simple Mercury Barometer

Vacuum (no air)

____________ |__

| | | <- glass tube (sealed at top)

| Mercury | |

| column ~76cm |

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

| | |

|_____________| |

| |

+================+ <- mercury trough (open to atmosphere)

| MERCURY |

+================+

Atmospheric pressure pushes DOWN on mercury surface

Supports column of 76 cm = 760 mmHg = 101,325 Pa = 1 atm

If altitude increases: less air above -> less pressure -> mercury column drops

CLASS EXERCISE
1. Define pressure and state its SI unit. How does pressure differ from force?

2. A force of 240 N acts on an area of 0.3 m². Find the pressure.

3. Calculate the water pressure at a depth of 50 m. (ρ = 1000 kg/m³, g = 10 m/s²)

Also find the total pressure if atmospheric pressure = 101 kPa.

4. State Pascal's Principle. Describe ONE application with a diagram.

5. A hydraulic lift has pistons of cross-sectional area 8 cm² and 480 cm².
If an effort of 100 N is applied to the small piston, find:
(a) the pressure transmitted through the oil
(b) the maximum load the large piston can support
(c) the mechanical advantage

6. State FOUR characteristics of pressure in a liquid.

7. Describe how a mercury barometer works. Why does the mercury column stand
at 76 cm at sea level?

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

WEEK 5
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
The Electromagnetic Spectrum — Properties, Types, and Applications

5.1 Introduction to Electromagnetic Waves

DEFINITION: Electromagnetic Wave
An electromagnetic (EM) wave is a transverse wave produced by oscillating electric and magnetic fields
perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation. EM waves do NOT require a medium — they can
travel through a vacuum at the speed of light.

FORMULA
Speed of all EM waves in vacuum:
c = 3 × 10⁸ m/s (speed of light)

Wave equation: c = f × λ
f = frequency (Hz), λ = wavelength (m)

Energy of EM wave: E = hf (Planck's equation)

h = Planck's constant = 6.63 × 10⁻³⁴ J·s
f = frequency (Hz)

Key relationships:
Higher frequency → shorter wavelength → more energy
Lower frequency → longer wavelength → less energy

DIAGRAM: Structure of an Electromagnetic Wave

E-field (electric)

Direction of | ^ ^

wave travel --> | /|\/ |\

============> |/ \ | \ E oscillates vertically

|------+--\-->

| \ \ B oscillates horizontally

| v v

B-field (magnetic)

E and B fields are perpendicular to each other

and perpendicular to the direction of travel (TRANSVERSE wave)

5.2 Properties Common to All EM Waves

1. Travel at the same speed in vacuum: c = 3 × 10⁸ m/s
2. Are transverse waves (fields oscillate perpendicular to direction of travel).
3. Can travel through a vacuum — no medium needed.
4. Can be reflected, refracted, diffracted, and polarised.
5. Transfer energy from one place to another.
6. Obey the wave equation: c = fλ
7. Are not deflected by electric or magnetic fields.

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5.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all types of EM radiation, arranged in order of increasing frequency (and
decreasing wavelength). Each type has distinct properties and applications.

DIAGRAM: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

<====== INCREASING WAVELENGTH ======> <======= INCREASING FREQUENCY ======>

<========= DECREASING FREQUENCY ======> <======= DECREASING WAVELENGTH =====

RADIO MICRO INFRA VISIBLE ULTRA X-RAY GAMMA

WAVES WAVES RED LIGHT VIOLET RAYS

||| ||| ||| ||| ||| ||| |||

~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~

^ ^

Longest Shortest

wavelength wavelength

Lowest Highest

frequency frequency

Lowest Highest

energy energy

Visible light (ROYGBIV): Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Indigo Violet

Red = longest wavelength in visible; Violet = shortest

Type Wavelength Range Frequency Range Source Applications

(Hz)
Radio Waves 1 mm – 100 km 3 kHz – 300 GHz Oscillating electrons TV, radio, radar,
in antenna mobile phones
Microwaves 1 mm – 1 m 300 MHz – 300 GHz Magnetron, klystron Microwave oven,
satellite
communication,
radar
Infrared (IR) 700 nm – 1 mm 300 GHz – 430 THz Hot objects, sun TV remote, night
vision, thermal
imaging, heaters
Visible Light 400 – 700 nm 430 – 750 THz Sun, lamp, LED Vision, photography,
optical fibres
Ultraviolet (UV) 10 – 400 nm 750 THz – 30 PHz Sun, UV lamps, hot Sterilisation, vitamin
stars D, fluorescence,
detecting forgery
X-Rays 0.01 – 10 nm 30 PHz – 30 EHz X-ray tube (high- Medical imaging,
energy electrons hit airport security,
metal) cancer treatment
Gamma Rays < 0.01 nm > 30 EHz Radioactive nuclei, Cancer treatment
nuclear reactions (radiotherapy),
sterilising medical
equipment

DIAGRAM: Comparing Wavelengths in the EM Spectrum

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

Type Approx Wavelength Comparison

Radio 100 m Length of a football field
Microwave 0.01 m Width of a pencil
Infrared 0.00001 m (10 μm) Thickness of human hair
Visible 0.0000005 m (500 nm) Tiny fraction of hair
Ultraviolet 0.0000001 m (100 nm) Smaller than bacterium
X-ray 0.000000001 m (1 nm) Size of an atom
Gamma 0.0000000001 m Size of an atomic nucleus

WORKED EXAMPLE
Q1: Radio station broadcasts at frequency 100 MHz. Find the wavelength.
c = fλ => λ = c/f = (3 × 10⁸) / (100 × 10⁶) = 3 m

Q2: A gamma ray has wavelength 1 × 10⁻¹² m. Find its frequency.

f = c/λ = (3 × 10⁸) / (1 × 10⁻¹²) = 3 × 10²⁰ Hz

Q3: Find the energy of a photon of UV light with frequency 1 × 10¹⁵ Hz.
E = hf = 6.63 × 10⁻³⁴ × 1 × 10¹⁵ = 6.63 × 10⁻¹⁹ J

Type Hazards Protection

Ultraviolet Sunburn, skin cancer, cataracts Sunscreen, UV-blocking glasses,
protective clothing
X-Rays DNA damage, cancer Lead aprons, limiting exposure time
Gamma Rays Radiation sickness, cancer, cell Thick lead or concrete shielding,
damage distance
Microwaves Heating of body tissues Microwave shielding, safety
interlocks

CLASS EXERCISE
1. Define electromagnetic wave. State FIVE properties common to all EM waves.

2. List the types of EM radiation in order of increasing frequency.

Which has: (a) longest wavelength (b) highest energy (c) lowest frequency?

3. A radio wave has frequency 90 MHz. Calculate its wavelength.

(speed of light = 3 × 10⁸ m/s)

4. An X-ray has wavelength 0.5 nm. Find its frequency.

5. Describe THREE applications each of: (a) Infrared (b) Ultraviolet (c) Microwaves

6. Why are X-rays used in medicine but gamma rays are used in cancer treatment?
Explain the difference in their applications.

7. How does a microwave oven use EM waves to heat food?

Which part of the EM spectrum does it use?

8. Compare X-rays and gamma rays — similarities and differences.

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WEEK 6
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD I
Newton's Law of Gravitation | Universal Constant G | Gravitational Potential | Escape Velocity

6.1 Gravitational Force

DEFINITION: Gravitational Force
Gravitational force is the attractive force that exists between any two masses in the universe. It acts along the line
joining their centres and is always attractive (never repulsive).

6.2 Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

DEFINITION: Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation
Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is directly proportional to the product of
their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres.

FORMULA
F = G m₁m₂ / r²

Where: F = gravitational force (Newtons, N)

G = Universal gravitational constant = 6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ N m²/kg²
m₁ = mass of first body (kg)
m₂ = mass of second body (kg)
r = distance between centres of the two masses (m)

F ∝ m₁m₂ (force increases with mass)

Key relationships:

F ∝ 1/r² (force decreases with distance — INVERSE SQUARE LAW)

If r doubles: F decreases to 1/4 of original
If r triples: F decreases to 1/9 of original

DIAGRAM: Newton's Law of Gravitation — Inverse Square Law

m₁ ● ● m₂

|<============= r ================>|

| |

F = G m₁m₂/r² <======> F = G m₁m₂/r²

(force on m₁) (force on m₂)

Forces are equal and opposite (Newton's 3rd Law)

Effect of distance on force:

r = 1: F = G m₁m₂/1 = F

r = 2: F = G m₁m₂/4 = F/4 (quadrupled distance → 1/16 force)

r = 3: F = G m₁m₂/9 = F/9

INVERSE SQUARE LAW: F ∝ 1/r²

6.3 The Universal Gravitational Constant G

G was first measured by Henry Cavendish in 1798 using a sensitive torsion balance experiment. G = 6.67 × 10 ⁻¹¹ N
m²/kg².
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G is called a 'universal constant' because it has the SAME value everywhere in the universe — between any two masses,
in any location, at any time. It does not depend on the nature or composition of the masses.
Note: Do NOT confuse G (universal constant) with g (acceleration due to gravity, which varies with location). They are
related:
FORMULA
Relationship between G and g:
F = GMm/R² and also F = mg
Therefore: mg = GMm/R²
g = GM/R²

Where: M = mass of Earth = 6.0 × 10²⁴ kg

R = radius of Earth = 6.4 × 10⁶ m
G = 6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ N m²/kg²

g = (6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ × 6.0 × 10²⁴) / (6.4 × 10⁶)²

g = (4.002 × 10¹⁴) / (4.096 × 10¹³) ≈ 9.8 m/s² ≈ 10 m/s²

WORKED EXAMPLE
Q1: Two spheres of mass 5 kg each are placed 0.2 m apart.
Find the gravitational force between them.
F = Gm₁m₂/r² = (6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ × 5 × 5) / (0.2)²
F = (6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ × 25) / 0.04
F = (1.6675 × 10⁻⁹) / 0.04 = 4.17 × 10⁻⁸ N

Q2: If the distance between the spheres above is doubled to 0.4 m,

what is the new force?

(Because F ∝ 1/r², doubling r reduces F to 1/4)

F₂ = F₁/4 = 4.17 × 10⁻⁸ / 4 = 1.04 × 10⁻⁸ N

6.4 Gravitational Potential

DEFINITION: Gravitational Potential
The gravitational potential (V) at a point in a gravitational field is the work done per unit mass in bringing a small
test mass from infinity to that point. It is always NEGATIVE (energy must be supplied to escape the field). SI Unit:
J/kg.

FORMULA
Gravitational Potential:
V = -GM / r

V = gravitational potential (J/kg) [NEGATIVE!]

G = 6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ N m²/kg²
M = mass of the body creating the field (kg)
r = distance from the centre of the body (m)

Gravitational Potential Energy of a mass m at distance r:

PE = mV = -GMm / r

At Earth's surface: PE = -GMm/R

(R = radius of Earth = 6.4 × 10⁶ m)

6.5 Escape Velocity

DEFINITION: Escape Velocity
Escape velocity is the minimum velocity required for a body to escape the gravitational field of a planet or star — to
travel to infinity with zero kinetic energy remaining. No propulsion is needed after launch.

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FORMULA
Derivation: KE at launch = PE to be overcome
(1/2)mv² = GMm/R
v²_escape = 2GM/R
v_escape = sqrt(2GM/R) = sqrt(2gR)

For Earth:
v_escape = sqrt(2 × 10 × 6.4 × 10⁶)
= sqrt(1.28 × 10⁸)
= 11,314 m/s
≈ 11.2 km/s

For the Moon: v_escape ≈ 2.4 km/s (smaller mass and radius)
For the Sun: v_escape ≈ 617 km/s (very large mass)

DIAGRAM: Escape Velocity — Concept

ESCAPE VELOCITY (11.2 km/s)

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ object leaves Earth's gravity

/ and does not come back

ORBITAL VELOCITY /

(7.9 km/s) -----> /

Object orbits Earth <- stays in circular orbit

Earth +++

++ ++

<-- ++ O ++ --> (Earth)

++ ++

+++

Below orbital |

velocity: falls \|/ (object falls back to Earth)

back v

CLASS EXERCISE
1. State Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation. Write its mathematical expression
and define all symbols.

2. Two masses of 10 kg and 15 kg are placed 0.5 m apart.

Calculate the gravitational force between them. (G = 6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ N m²/kg²)

3. If the distance between two masses is tripled, how does the

gravitational force change? Support your answer with a formula.

4. Distinguish between G (universal gravitational constant) and

g (acceleration due to gravity). Why does g vary with location but G does not?

5. Calculate the value of g at the surface of the moon.

(Mass of moon = 7.34 × 10²² kg, Radius = 1.74 × 10⁶ m)

6. Define escape velocity and derive its formula.

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Calculate the escape velocity from Earth's surface.

(G = 6.67 × 10⁻¹¹, M_Earth = 6.0 × 10²⁴ kg, R_Earth = 6.4 × 10⁶ m)

7. Define gravitational potential. Why is it always negative?

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WEEK 7

GRAVITATIONAL FIELD II

Solar System | Kepler's Laws | Natural & Artificial Satellites

7.1 The Solar System

The solar system consists of the Sun and all the celestial bodies that orbit it, held in place by gravitational attraction. It
includes 8 planets, their moons, dwarf planets, asteroids, comets, and meteoroids.

DIAGRAM: The Solar System — Planet Order

Mercury Venus Earth Moon Mars | Asteroid Belt | Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

(1) (2) (3) - (4) * (5) (6) (7) (8)

Distance from Sun (approximate):

Mercury: 57.9 million km Jupiter: 778 million km

Venus: 108 million km Saturn: 1,429 million km

Earth: 150 million km Uranus: 2,871 million km

Mars: 228 million km Neptune: 4,498 million km

Mnemonic: My Very Excellent Mother Just Served Us Noodles

(Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune)

7.2 Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion

Kepler's First Law — Law of Ellipses
DEFINITION: Kepler's First Law
Each planet moves in an elliptical orbit around the Sun, with the Sun located at one FOCUS of the ellipse — not at
the centre.

DIAGRAM: Kepler's First Law — Elliptical Orbit

perihelion aphelion

(nearest) (farthest)

* *

* * * *

* [SUN] ---------orbit----- *

* * * *

* ######## *

* * * * *

** **

<-- SUN is at one FOCUS of the ellipse, not the centre -->

Perihelion: planet closest to Sun — moves FASTEST

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Aphelion: planet farthest from Sun — moves SLOWEST

Kepler's Second Law — Law of Equal Areas

DEFINITION: Kepler's Second Law
A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal time intervals. This means the planet moves
faster when closer to the Sun (perihelion) and slower when farther away (aphelion).

Kepler's Third Law — Law of Periods

DEFINITION: Kepler's Third Law

the Sun. T² ∝ r³.

The square of the orbital period (T) of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the average distance (r) from

FORMULA
Kepler's Third Law:
T² / r³ = constant (same for all planets around the same star)
T² = (4π²/GM) × r³

T = orbital period (seconds)

r = average orbital radius (mean distance from Sun) (m)
G = 6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ N m²/kg²
M = mass of the central body (Sun) (kg)

For two planets A and B orbiting the same star:

T_A² / r_A³ = T_B² / r_B³

Mass of Sun from Kepler's 3rd Law:

M = 4π²r³ / GT²

WORKED EXAMPLE

Q1: Earth orbits the Sun at 1.5 × 10¹¹ m with period 1 year = 3.15 × 10⁷ s.

Mars orbits at 2.28 × 10¹¹ m. Find the orbital period of Mars.

T_A²/r_A³ = T_B²/r_B³

T_Mars² = T_Earth² × (r_Mars/r_Earth)³

T_Mars² = (3.15 × 10⁷)² × (2.28/1.5)³

T_Mars² = 9.92 × 10¹⁴ × (1.52)³

T_Mars² = 9.92 × 10¹⁴ × 3.51 = 3.48 × 10¹⁵

T_Mars = 5.9 × 10⁷ s ≈ 1.87 years (actual ≈ 1.88 years ✓)

7.3 Natural and Artificial Satellites

Natural Satellites
A natural satellite is any naturally occurring body that orbits a planet. Earth's Moon is a natural satellite. Other planets also
have moons — Jupiter has over 80 known moons.

Artificial Satellites
DEFINITION: Artificial Satellite
An artificial satellite is a man-made object placed in orbit around Earth (or another body) by a rocket. It orbits
because gravitational force provides the centripetal force needed for circular motion.

FORMULA

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For a satellite in circular orbit:

Gravitational force = Centripetal force
GMm/r² = mv²/r
GM/r = v²
v = sqrt(GM/r) (orbital speed)

Also: T = 2πr/v = 2πr / sqrt(GM/r)

T² = 4π²r³/GM (Kepler's 3rd law for satellites)

For a GEOSTATIONARY satellite:

T = 24 hours = 86,400 s (orbits in same period as Earth's rotation)
Orbital radius ≈ 42,300 km from Earth's centre ≈ 36,000 km above Earth's surface

DIAGRAM: Types of Satellite Orbits

+-----+

| | GEOSTATIONARY (T = 24 h)

| | 36,000 km above surface

+-+-----+-+ Always above same point on Earth

+--------+ +--------+

| | MEO (Medium Earth Orbit)

| ++++++++ | 2,000-36,000 km

| ++ EARTH ++ | GPS satellites use MEO

| + +++ + |

+-------+ + + O O O + +---------+ LEO (Low Earth Orbit)

+ + / \ + | 200-2,000 km

++ ++ ++ ++ | ISS, weather, spy sats

++++++++++++++++

Polar orbit: passes over poles; gradually surveys whole Earth

Equatorial orbit: stays above equator

Type of Artificial Orbit Height Period Applications

Satellite
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) 200-2,000 km 90-120 min International Space
Station (ISS), remote
sensing, spy satellites,
Hubble telescope
Medium Earth Orbit 2,000-36,000 km 2-24 hours GPS navigation satellites
(MEO)
Geostationary Orbit ~36,000 km 24 hours TV broadcast, weather
(GEO) satellites, communications
(e.g. StarLink)
Polar Orbit Any altitude Varies Earth surface mapping,
weather, surveillance

CLASS EXERCISE
1. State Kepler's three laws of planetary motion.
Give the mathematical statement of Kepler's third law.

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

2. Mercury orbits the Sun at 5.8 × 10¹⁰ m and has a period of 88 days.
Earth's orbit radius is 1.5 × 10¹¹ m. Using Kepler's 3rd law,
verify that Earth's period is approximately 365 days.

3. Define 'satellite'. Distinguish between natural and artificial satellites.

Give TWO examples of each.

4. Derive the formula for orbital velocity of a satellite.

Show that v = sqrt(GM/r).

5. A satellite orbits Earth at a height of 400 km above the surface.

Find its orbital speed. (G = 6.67 × 10⁻¹¹, M_Earth = 6 × 10²⁴ kg,
R_Earth = 6.4 × 10⁶ m, Height = 4 × 10⁵ m)

6. What is a geostationary satellite? State THREE applications.

Why must it orbit above the equator?

7. Explain Kepler's second law using the concept of conservation of angular momentum.

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WEEK 8
ELECTRIC FIELD I
Production of Continuous Charges | Electric Circuits | Series & Parallel Cells & Resistors

8.1 Production of Continuous Electric Charges (Current Electricity)

Static electricity involves charges at rest. To have a CONTINUOUS flow of charge (electric current), we need a device that
maintains a constant potential difference — called an EMF source (cell, battery, generator).

Source of Continuous EMF How It Works Examples

Chemical cell Chemical reactions convert Dry cell, lead-acid battery, lithium
chemical energy to electrical energy battery
Generator (dynamo) Mechanical rotation of coil in Power station generators, bicycle
magnetic field produces EMF dynamo
Solar cell (photovoltaic) Light photons release electrons in Solar panels, calculators
semiconductor material
Thermocouple Temperature difference between Thermocouples in temperature
two junctions produces EMF sensors
Piezoelectric crystal Mechanical stress on crystal Microphones, gas lighters
produces EMF

8.2 Basic Electric Circuit Concepts

FORMULA
Ohm's Law: V = I × R

V = potential difference (Volts, V)

I = current (Amperes, A)
R = resistance (Ohms, Ω)

Power: P = IV = I²R = V²/R (Watts, W)

Charge: Q = It (Coulombs, C)
Energy: E = Pt = VIt (Joules, J)

Conductance: G = 1/R (Siemens, S)

DIAGRAM: Simple Electric Circuit — Symbols

+---[CELL]---+---[SWITCH]---+---[LAMP]---+

| | | |

| | | |

+-----------[AMMETER]------[RESISTOR]----+

| |

+--[VOLTMETER]---(across a component)----+

Symbols: [CELL] = |+ -| [BATTERY] = |+ -| |+ -|

[LAMP] = (X) [SWITCH] = / [RESISTOR] = [---]

[AMMETER (A)] = Circle with A [VOLTMETER (V)] = Circle with V

Ammeter: connected in SERIES Voltmeter: connected in PARALLEL

8.3 Series Arrangement of Resistors

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DEFINITION: Series Circuit

In a series circuit, components are connected end-to-end in a single path. The same current flows through all
components. The total resistance equals the sum of individual resistances.

FORMULA
Series Resistors:
R_total = R₁ + R₂ + R₃ + ...

Current: I is the SAME through all resistors

Voltage: V_total = V₁ + V₂ + V₃ (voltages ADD up)
V₁ = IR₁, V₂ = IR₂, V₃ = IR₃

Series Cells:
E_total = E₁ + E₂ + E₃ (if connected same direction)
r_total = r₁ + r₂ + r₃ (internal resistances add)

DIAGRAM: Series Resistors Circuit

+--[CELL E]--+--[R₁]--+--[R₂]--+--[R₃]--+

| | | | |

+------------+--------+--------+--------+

Same current I flows through R₁, R₂, R₃

V_total = IR_total = I(R₁ + R₂ + R₃)

V₁:V₂:V₃ = R₁:R₂:R₃ (voltage divider principle)

8.4 Parallel Arrangement of Resistors

DEFINITION: Parallel Circuit
In a parallel circuit, components are connected across the same two points, providing multiple paths for current.
The same voltage appears across all components. The total resistance is LESS than the smallest individual
resistance.

FORMULA
Parallel Resistors:
1/R_total = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + 1/R₃ + ...

For two resistors: R_total = (R₁ × R₂) / (R₁ + R₂)

Voltage: V is the SAME across all resistors

Current: I_total = I₁ + I₂ + I₃ (currents ADD up)
I₁ = V/R₁, I₂ = V/R₂, I₃ = V/R₃

Parallel Cells:
E_total = E (each cell has same EMF)
1/r_total = 1/r₁ + 1/r₂ (internal resistances combine in parallel)
Advantage: increased current capacity, longer life

DIAGRAM: Parallel Resistors Circuit

+-------+-------+-------+

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

| | | |

[E] [R₁] [R₂] [R₃]

| | | |

+-------+-------+-------+

Same voltage V across each: V = IR₁ = IR₂ = IR₃

Total current I = I₁ + I₂ + I₃

1/R_total = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + 1/R₃

Note: More parallel paths → lower total resistance

The more branches, the more current can flow

WORKED EXAMPLE
Q1 (Series): Three resistors 4Ω, 6Ω, 10Ω are in series with a 12 V battery.
Find: (a) total resistance (b) current (c) voltage across each resistor
(a) R_total = 4 + 6 + 10 = 20 Ω
(b) I = V/R = 12/20 = 0.6 A (same through all)
(c) V₁ = 0.6 × 4 = 2.4 V, V₂ = 0.6 × 6 = 3.6 V, V₃ = 0.6 × 10 = 6 V
Check: 2.4 + 3.6 + 6 = 12 V ✓

Q2 (Parallel): Three resistors 6Ω, 12Ω, 4Ω are in parallel with a 12 V supply.

Find: (a) total resistance (b) total current (c) current through each
(a) 1/R = 1/6 + 1/12 + 1/4 = 2/12 + 1/12 + 3/12 = 6/12 = 1/2
R_total = 2 Ω
(b) I_total = V/R = 12/2 = 6 A
(c) I₁ = 12/6 = 2 A, I₂ = 12/12 = 1 A, I₃ = 12/4 = 3 A
Check: 2 + 1 + 3 = 6 A ✓

CLASS EXERCISE
1. State Ohm's Law. Under what conditions does it apply?

2. Four resistors of 2Ω, 3Ω, 5Ω, and 10Ω are connected in series to a 20 V supply.
Find: (a) total resistance (b) current (c) power dissipated in the 5Ω resistor

3. Three resistors of 6Ω, 3Ω, and 2Ω are connected in parallel.

Find the equivalent resistance.

4. A 4Ω and 6Ω resistor are connected in parallel. This combination is connected

in series with a 3Ω resistor and a 12 V battery. Find:
(a) the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination
(b) the total resistance of the circuit
(c) the total current from the battery
(d) the voltage across the parallel combination

5. Compare series and parallel circuits in terms of: current, voltage,

resistance, and effect of one component failing.

6. Why is the electrical system in a house wired in parallel rather than series?

7. Three cells each of EMF 1.5 V are connected: (a) in series (b) in parallel.
Find the total EMF in each case.
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WEEK 9
ELECTRIC FIELD II
EMF | Internal Resistance | Standard Resistors | Rheostats | Resistivity & Conductivity

9.1 Electromotive Force (EMF) of a Cell

DEFINITION: EMF (Electromotive Force)
The electromotive force (E or ε) of a cell is the total energy supplied by the cell per unit charge passing through it
— including energy used inside the cell. EMF is the maximum potential difference available from the cell (when no
current flows). Unit: Volt (V).

DEFINITION: Terminal Voltage

The terminal voltage (V) is the actual potential difference across the terminals of a cell when current is flowing. It is
LESS than the EMF because some energy is used to drive current through the cell's internal resistance.

FORMULA

E = V + Ir (EMF equation)

V = E - Ir (Terminal Voltage)

Where: E = EMF of cell (V)

V = terminal voltage (V)

I = current flowing (A)

r = internal resistance of cell (Ω)

Ir = 'lost voltage' — energy wasted inside cell

Also: E = I(R + r) (total circuit equation)

I = E / (R + r)

When current = 0 (open circuit): V = E (terminal voltage = EMF)

When circuit closed: V = E - Ir < E

DIAGRAM: Cell with Internal Resistance — Circuit Diagram

+=========================================+

| CELL [E, r] |

| +--[ r ]--+--[ E ]--+ |

| | internal | EMF | |

| | resistance| | |

+--+------------+----------+ |

| |

+-----[ R (external resistor) ]------+

Terminal voltage V = voltage across R = IR

Lost voltage = Ir (inside cell)

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

E = IR + Ir = I(R + r)

Energy per coulomb: E = V_external + V_internal

WORKED EXAMPLE
Q1: A battery has EMF 12 V and internal resistance 0.5 Ω.
It is connected to an external resistor of 4.5 Ω.
Find: (a) current (b) terminal voltage (c) lost voltage

(a) I = E/(R + r) = 12 / (4.5 + 0.5) = 12/5 = 2.4 A

(b) V = E - Ir = 12 - (2.4 × 0.5) = 12 - 1.2 = 10.8 V
OR V = IR = 2.4 × 4.5 = 10.8 V ✓
(c) Lost voltage = Ir = 2.4 × 0.5 = 1.2 V

Q2: A cell of EMF 1.5 V gives a current of 0.3 A through a 4Ω resistor.

Find the internal resistance.
E = I(R + r) => 1.5 = 0.3(4 + r)
5 = 4 + r => r = 1 Ω

9.2 Standard Resistors and Rheostats

Device Description Symbol Application
Fixed Resistor Constant resistance; ━━[R]━━ Limiting current, voltage
made of carbon or metal dividers
wire
Variable Resistor Resistance can be varied ━━[R→]━━ Dimmer switches, volume
(Rheostat) by sliding contact controls
Potentiometer Variable resistor with 3 ━━[R]━━ Calibration, measuring
terminals; acts as voltage EMF
divider
Light Dependent Resistor Resistance changes with Light sensor symbol Automatic streetlights,
(LDR) light intensity alarms
Thermistor (NTC) Resistance decreases as Temp sensor symbol Temperature sensing
temperature rises circuits

DIAGRAM: Rheostat — Variable Resistor

RHEOSTAT (2-terminal connection — controls current):

+---------------+

| resistance wire|-----> to circuit

+---+ |

| sliding |

| contact |

+---+-----------+

| |

terminal A terminal B

Moving slider increases/decreases length of wire in circuit

=> increases/decreases resistance => controls current

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

POTENTIOMETER (3-terminal — voltage divider):

+--[sliding contact]--+

A | B

| output V |

+---[resistance]------+

Input voltage V_in divided proportionally across resistor

9.3 Resistivity and Conductivity

DEFINITION: Resistivity
Resistivity (ρ) is a material property that describes how strongly a material opposes the flow of electric current. A
material with LOW resistivity is a good conductor; HIGH resistivity means a poor conductor (insulator). SI Unit:
Ohm-metre (Ω·m).

FORMULA
R = ρL / A

Where: R = resistance (Ω)

ρ = resistivity of material (Ω·m)
L = length of conductor (m)
A = cross-sectional area (m²)

Therefore: ρ = RA / L

Conductivity (σ) = 1/ρ (SI Unit: Siemens per metre, S/m)

High conductivity = good conductor

R∝L
Factors affecting resistance of a wire:

R ∝ 1/A
(longer → more resistance)

R∝ρ
(thicker → less resistance)
(depends on material)
R increases with temperature (for metals)

Material Resistivity ρ (Ω·m) Type

Silver 1.6 × 10⁻⁸ Conductor (best)
Copper 1.7 × 10⁻⁸ Conductor (common in wires)
Aluminium 2.8 × 10⁻⁸ Conductor
Iron 1.0 × 10⁻⁷ Conductor
Nichrome 1.1 × 10⁻⁶ Conductor (heating elements)
Silicon 640 Semiconductor
Glass 10¹⁰ – 10¹⁴ Insulator
Rubber 10¹³ – 10¹⁶ Insulator (best)

WORKED EXAMPLE
Q1: A copper wire has length 2 m and diameter 1 mm.
Find its resistance. (ρ_copper = 1.7 × 10⁻⁸ Ω·m)
Radius = 0.5 mm = 0.5 × 10⁻³ m
A = πr² = π × (0.5 × 10⁻³)² = π × 2.5 × 10⁻⁷ = 7.85 × 10⁻⁷ m²
R = ρL/A = (1.7 × 10⁻⁸ × 2) / (7.85 × 10⁻⁷)
R = 3.4 × 10⁻⁸ / 7.85 × 10⁻⁷ = 0.0433 Ω ≈ 43 mΩ

Q2: A wire of resistance 10 Ω has length 5 m and area 2 × 10⁻⁶ m².

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

Find the resistivity of the material.

ρ = RA/L = (10 × 2 × 10⁻⁶) / 5 = 4 × 10⁻⁶ Ω·m
This material is similar to nichrome — used in heating coils.

CLASS EXERCISE
1. Define: (a) EMF (b) terminal voltage (c) internal resistance
Write the equation relating these three quantities.

2. A battery of EMF 9 V and internal resistance 1 Ω drives a current

through a 8 Ω external resistor. Calculate:
(a) the current (b) terminal voltage (c) power lost internally

3. What is the difference between a rheostat and a potentiometer?

Give ONE application of each.

4. Define resistivity. State FOUR factors that affect the resistance of a conductor.

5. A nichrome wire of length 3 m and cross-sectional area 5 × 10⁻⁷ m² has

resistivity 1.1 × 10⁻⁶ Ω·m. Find its resistance.

6. A copper wire has resistance 2 Ω. If its length is doubled and its

cross-sectional area is halved, what is its new resistance?

7. Why do heating elements in electric cookers use nichrome wire

instead of copper wire? Explain using resistivity values.

8. The terminal voltage of a battery drops from 12 V to 10 V when

a 5 Ω resistor is connected. Find the internal resistance of the battery.

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

WEEK 10
ELECTRIC FIELD III
Galvanometer Conversion | Potentiometer Principle | Wheatstone Bridge

10.1 The Galvanometer and Its Conversion

DEFINITION: Galvanometer
A galvanometer is a sensitive instrument for detecting and measuring very small electric currents. It can be
converted into: (a) an AMMETER — by connecting a low resistance (shunt) in parallel, or (b) a VOLTMETER — by
connecting a high resistance (multiplier) in series.

10.1a Converting Galvanometer to Ammeter

An ammeter measures current and must have VERY LOW resistance (so it doesn't disturb the circuit). A shunt (small
resistance S) is connected IN PARALLEL with the galvanometer so that most current bypasses the coil.

FORMULA
Converting galvanometer to ammeter:
At parallel combination: V_G = V_S
I_g × G = (I - I_g) × S

S = (I_g × G) / (I - I_g)

S = shunt resistance (Ω)

G = galvanometer coil resistance (Ω)
I_g = full-scale deflection current of galvanometer (A)
I = maximum current to be measured by ammeter (A)

The shunt S allows the galvanometer to measure higher currents

while only I_g flows through the coil.

DIAGRAM: Galvanometer Converted to Ammeter

I (total current) I

-----+------------------------------------------+----->

| |

| +--[GALVANOMETER G]--+ |

| | (I_g flows here) | |

+--------+ +------------+

| [SHUNT S in parallel] |

+--[ S ]----------+

(I - I_g flows here)

S is very small (low resistance)

Most current flows through S, small current through G

Result: Can measure LARGE currents safely

10.1b Converting Galvanometer to Voltmeter

A voltmeter measures potential difference and must have VERY HIGH resistance (so it draws negligible current from the
circuit). A multiplier (large resistance M) is connected IN SERIES with the galvanometer.

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

FORMULA
Converting galvanometer to voltmeter:
Total voltage V = I_g(G + M)
M = (V / I_g) - G

M = multiplier resistance (Ω)

V = maximum voltage to be measured (V)
I_g = full-scale deflection current of galvanometer (A)
G = galvanometer resistance (Ω)

DIAGRAM: Galvanometer Converted to Voltmeter

+-------[ M (multiplier) ]-------[GALVANOMETER G]-------+

| (I_g flows through) |

+ -

|<=================== V (to be measured) =================>|

M is very large (high resistance)

Very little current drawn from circuit

The voltmeter is placed IN PARALLEL across the component being measured

WORKED EXAMPLE
Q1 (Ammeter): A galvanometer has G = 50 Ω and full-scale deflection I_g = 1 mA.
Find the shunt resistance to convert it to an ammeter measuring up to 5 A.
S = I_g × G / (I - I_g)
S = (0.001 × 50) / (5 - 0.001)
S = 0.05 / 4.999 = 0.01 Ω (very small — as expected for a shunt)

Q2 (Voltmeter): A galvanometer has G = 50 Ω and I_g = 1 mA.

Find multiplier resistance to convert to voltmeter reading up to 10 V.
M = V/I_g - G = 10/0.001 - 50 = 10,000 - 50 = 9,950 Ω ≈ 10 kΩ (very large)

10.2 The Potentiometer

DEFINITION: Potentiometer
A potentiometer is an instrument used to measure or compare EMFs and terminal voltages accurately. It works by
balancing an unknown EMF against a known, calibrated voltage — drawing NO current from the source being
measured at the balance point. This makes it more accurate than a voltmeter.

FORMULA
Principle of the potentiometer:
At balance point: the potential drop along the wire = unknown EMF
E_unknown / E_standard = l₁ / l₂

Where: l₁ = balance length for unknown cell (cm or m)

l₂ = balance length for standard cell (cm or m)

Also: E = k × l
k = potential gradient (V/m or V/cm) = E_driver / L_wire
l = balance length for cell being tested

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

DIAGRAM: Potentiometer Circuit

DRIVER CELL (E_d)

+--[E_d]--+----------------------------------------------+

| | |

| A ========= RESISTANCE WIRE (L) ============= B

| |

| JOCKEY (J) — slides along wire

| |

| +--[E_x (unknown cell)]--[Galvanometer]--+

| | |

| +---------+-----(J)---------------------(+)

+-------------------------------------------------------+

At balance: Galvanometer reads ZERO — no current through E_x

E_x = k × l (k = potential gradient, l = balance length)

Advantages over voltmeter:

1. No current drawn from cell at balance — highly accurate

2. Can measure EMF (not just terminal voltage)

WORKED EXAMPLE
Q: A potentiometer wire is 100 cm long. A standard cell of EMF 1.5 V balances
at 75 cm. An unknown cell balances at 60 cm. Find the EMF of the unknown cell.

E_x / E_standard = l_x / l_standard

E_x / 1.5 = 60 / 75
E_x = 1.5 × (60/75) = 1.5 × 0.8 = 1.2 V

10.3 The Wheatstone Bridge

DEFINITION: Wheatstone Bridge
A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown resistance precisely by balancing two
legs of a bridge circuit. At balance, no current flows through the galvanometer.

FORMULA
Wheatstone Bridge Balance Condition:
P/Q = R/X
X = QR/P

P = known resistance (Ω)

Q = known resistance (Ω)
R = known variable resistance (Ω)
X = unknown resistance (Ω)

At balance: no current through galvanometer

P×X=Q×R

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

DIAGRAM: Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

/\

/ \

[P] [Q]

/ \

B----[G]----C G = Galvanometer

\ /

[R] [X]

\ /

\/

[BATTERY]

At balance: V_B = V_C => no current through G

Current through P = current through Q

Current through R = current through X

Therefore: P/Q = R/X => X = QR/P

Applications of the Wheatstone Bridge:

1. Measuring unknown resistances accurately.
2. Strain gauges (measuring stress/strain in materials).
3. Temperature sensing (using thermistors in one arm of the bridge).
4. Detecting faults in telephone and telegraph cables.
5. Precise measurement in calibration laboratories.

WORKED EXAMPLE
Q1: In a Wheatstone bridge: P = 10 Ω, Q = 20 Ω, R = 15 Ω.
Find the unknown resistance X for bridge to be balanced.
P/Q = R/X => X = QR/P = (20 × 15) / 10 = 300/10 = 30 Ω

Q2: A Wheatstone bridge is balanced when P = 5 Ω, Q = 10 Ω, and X = 14 Ω.

Find the value of R.
P/Q = R/X => 5/10 = R/14 => R = 14 × 5/10 = 7 Ω

CLASS EXERCISE
1. What is a galvanometer? How does it detect current?

2. A galvanometer has resistance 100 Ω and gives full-scale deflection at 2 mA.

(a) Find the shunt resistance to make it read up to 10 A.
(b) Find the multiplier resistance to make it read up to 50 V.

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

3. Why must an ammeter have very low resistance?

Why must a voltmeter have very high resistance?

4. Explain the working principle of a potentiometer.

State ONE advantage it has over a voltmeter.

5. A potentiometer wire of length 200 cm is connected to a driver cell.

A standard cell of 1.08 V gives a balance length of 90 cm.
An unknown cell gives balance at 120 cm. Find its EMF.

6. State the balance condition for a Wheatstone bridge.

Draw the circuit diagram and label all components.

7. In a Wheatstone bridge, P = 8 Ω, Q = 16 Ω, R = 12 Ω.
Calculate the unknown resistance X.

8. State FOUR applications of the Wheatstone bridge.

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 SS2 PHYSICS NOTES — SECOND TERM

SS2 PHYSICS SECOND TERM SCHEME TABLE

Week Topic Key Sub-topics Key Formulas

1 Sound Waves I Sources, transmission, v = fλ, v = 331+0.6T, I =
speed in media, P/A
characteristics
2 Sound Waves II Noise/music, resonance, fn = nf₁, f₁ = v/2L (string)
harmonics, overtones,
stationary waves
3 Application of Sound Strings, pipes, f = (1/2L)√(T/μ), d = vt/2
instruments, echoes,
hearing aids
4 Molecular Theory Pressure concept, liquids, P = F/A, P = ρgh, F₁/A₁ =
Pascal's principle, F₂/A₂
atmosphere
5 EM Waves Full EM spectrum, c = fλ = 3×10⁸ m/s, E = hf
properties, applications,
hazards
6 Gravitational Field I Newton's law, G constant, F = Gm₁m₂/r², v_esc =
gravitational potential, √(2GM/R)
escape velocity
7 Gravitational Field II Solar system, Kepler's 3 T² ∝ r³, v_orbital =
laws, natural/artificial √(GM/r)
satellites
8 Electric Field I Circuit basics, R_s = ΣR, 1/R_p = Σ(1/R)
series/parallel resistors
and cells
9 Electric Field II EMF, internal resistance, E = I(R+r), R = ρL/A
resistivity, conductivity
10 Electric Field III Galvanometer, S = IgG/(I-Ig), P/Q = R/X
potentiometer,
Wheatstone bridge
!

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