CE 321 – Hydrology

Evaporation and
Evapo-Transpiration Selva Balaji M
BITS Pilani Department of Civil Engineering
[Link]@[Link]
Pilani Campus

1
 Evaporation- Introduction
Evaporation is the process by which water is converted from its liquid form to its vapour
form and thus transferred from land and water masses to the atmosphere.

Evaporation and Transpiration redistributes the heat energy between surface and
atmosphere.

Heat (energy) is necessary for evaporation to occur. Energy is used to break the bonds
that hold water molecules together, which is why water easily evaporates at the boiling point
(212° F, 100° C) but evaporates much more slowly at the freezing point.

Sublimation: Solid state to gas state without encountering

Liquid state

Example: Camphor, ammonium chloride,

iodine, camphor, naphthalene, dry ice
2
 Evaporation Process
Evaporation includes all processes by which water returns to the atmosphere as water
vapour:
Evaporation of intercepted rain and snow;
Evaporation from bare soil and water bodies, such as ponds, lakes, and streams; and
transpiration from plant leaves.
Evaporation (and Transpiration) are small for a runoff event and can be neglected.
The bulk of these abstractions take place during the time between runoff events,
which is usually long. Hence, these are more important during this time interval.

3
 Evaporation Process

Although the level of a lake, pool, or glass of water will decrease due to
evaporation, the escaped water molecules dont disappear.
They stay in the atmosphere, affecting humidity, or the amount of moisture in the
air. Areas with high temperatures and large bodies of water, such as tropical islands
and swamps, are usually very humid for this reason. Water is evaporating, but staying in
the air as a vapour.
Once water evaporates, it also helps form clouds. The clouds then release the
moisture as rain or snow. The liquid water falls to Earth, waiting to be evaporated. The
cycle starts all over again.

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 Conditions for Evaporation

Evaporation requires the following four conditions:

(1) Available water
(2) Higher humidity at the evaporative surface (i.e., vapour pressure) than in the
surrounding air
(3) Energy to evaporate the water and
(4) Movement, or transfer, of water vapour away from the evaporative surface.

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 Factors Affecting Evaporation
Evaporation from free water surfaces and soil are of great importance in
hydro-meterological studies.
Many factors affect how evaporation happens. If the air is already clogged,
or saturated, with other substances, there wont be enough room in the air for
liquid to evaporate quickly. When the humidity is 100 percent, the air is saturated
with water. No more water can evaporate.

The factors that affect evaporation are:

1. Solar Radiation
2. Wind
3. Heat
4. Exposed surface area
5. Humidity
6. Nature of the liquid
7. Vapour pressure
8. Depth of Water
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 Factors Affecting Evaporation

1. Solar radiation: Near equator evaporation is also large.

2. Wind: When wind speed is high it assists evaporation as it helps in removing the saturated
air above the water body and brings dry air. For larger water bodies like lakes, larger
velocity increase required to increase evaporation. For smaller water bodies, even a slight
increase may be suffient.
2. Heat: Evaporation is highly dependent upon temperature. Higher the temperature, greater
will be the evaporation. Evaporation increases with increasing solar radiation.
Evaporation is more in summer as compared to winter.
3. Exposed surface area: Evaporation takes place from free surface of water body. Larger the
area exposed to atmosphere, greater will be evaporation. For instance, a wet cloth spread out
dries faster than when folded.
4. Humidity: Greater the humidity, lesser will be the evaporation. Dryness assists evaporation;
for instance, clothes dry faster in summer than during the monsoon when the air is humid.

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 Factors Affecting Evaporation

1. Solar radiation: Near equator evaporation is also large.

2. Wind: When wind speed is high it assists evaporation as it helps in removing the saturated
air above the water body and brings dry air. For larger water bodies like lakes, larger
velocity increase required to increase evaporation. For smaller water bodies, even a slight
increase may be suffient.
2. Heat: Evaporation is highly dependent upon temperature. Higher the temperature, greater
will be the evaporation. Evaporation increases with increasing solar radiation.
Evaporation is more in summer as compared to winter.
3. Exposed surface area: Evaporation takes place from free surface of water body. Larger the
area exposed to atmosphere, greater will be evaporation. For instance, a wet cloth spread out
dries faster than when folded.
4. Humidity: Greater the humidity, lesser will be the evaporation. Dryness assists evaporation;
for instance, clothes dry faster in summer than during the monsoon when the air is humid.

8
 Factors Affecting Evaporation
5. Vapour pressure: Evaporation decreases with increasing
atmospheric pressure. If pressure is applied on the surface of a liquid,
evaporation is hindered; consider, for example, the case of a pressure
cooker.
The rate of evaporation is proportional to the difference between the
saturation vapour pressure at the water temperature, ew and the
actual vapour pressure in the air, ea. Thus Dalton’s law of evaporation
after John Dalton (1802) who first recognized is,

Where,
EL,= Rate of evaporation (mm/ day) and
C= a constant;
ew and ea are in mm of mercury.
Evaporation continues till ew = ea.
If ew < ea Condensation takes place
9
Vapour pressure

[Link]
ourses/112104118/lecture-2/2-10-
vapour_pressure.htm

10
 Factors Affecting Evaporation
8. Depth of Water: Greater the depth of water, lesser will be the
evaporation. Deep water bodies have more heat storage capacity than
shallow water bodies.
A deep lake stores radiation energy received in summer and
releases it in winter resulting in less evaporation in summer and more
evaporation in winter when compared to a shallow lake exposed to similar
situations.
9. Soluble salts: When a solute is dissolved in water, the vapour pressure
of the solution is less than that of pure water and hence it causes reduction
in the rate of evaporation.
The percentage reduction in the evaporation rate approximately
corresponds to the percentage increase in specific gravity
Under identical conditions evaporation from sea water is about 2-
3% less than that from fresh water

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 Factors Affecting Evaporation
Higher the temperature and wind velocity, greater is the evaporation, while
greater the humidity and dissolved salts, smaller is the evaporation.
The annual evaporation from irrigation tanks in south India is of the order of 160
to180 cm, the highest evaporation being in the summer months of April and may.
The monthly evaporation from krishnarajasagara reservoir (near Mysore, South
India) is given below

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 Measurement of Evaporation

Estimation of evaporation is of utmost importance in many hydrologic problems

associated with planning and operation of reservoirs and irrigation systems.
In arid zones, this estimation is particularly important to conserve the scare water
resources.
However, the exact measurement of evaporation from a large body of water is indeed one of the
most difficult tasks.

The amount of water evaporated from a water surface is estimated by the following methods
• Using evaporimeter data
• Empirical evaporation equations and
• Analytical method

13
 Evaporimeters are water-containing pans which are exposed to the atmosphere and the
loss of water by evaporation measured in them at regular intervals.
Meteorological data, such as humidity, wind movement, air and water temperature, and
precipitation are also noted along with evaporation measurement.
Many types of evaporimeters are in use and few commonly used pans are listed
• US Class A Pan
• ISI Standard PAN
• Colorado sunken
• US Geological survey Floating Pan

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Source: [Link]

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 US Class A Pan

Class A Evaporation pan is a standard pan of 1210 mm

diameter and 255 mm depth used by the US weather Bureau and is
known as Class A Land Pan. The depth of water is maintained between
18 cm and 20 cm
The pan is normally made of unpainted galvanised iron sheet.
Monel metal is used where corrosion is a problem. The pan is placed
on a wooden platform of 15 cm height above the ground to allow free
circulation of air below the pan. Evaporation measurements are made
by measuring the depth of water with a hook gauge in a stilling well.

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US Class A Pan

Source: [Link]

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 US Class A Pan

Source: [Link]

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 ISI Standard PAN
This Pan evaporimeter specified by IS: 5973 - 1970, also known as
modified Class A Pan, consists of a pan 1220 mm in diameter with 255 mm
of depth.
The pan is made of copper sheet of 0.9 mm thickness. tinned inside
and painted white outside. A fixed point gauge indicates the level of water.
A calibrated cylindrical measure is used to add or remove water
maintaining water level in the pan to a fixed mark.

Source: [Link]

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ISI Standard PAN

Source : [Link]

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 ISI Standard PAN

The top of the pan is covered fully with a hexagonal wire netting
of galvanized iron to protect the water in the pan from birds.
A fixed gauge housed in a stilling well as shown in figure
is provided.
During evaporation measurement a constant water level is
maintained at the top level of fixed gauge. For this purpose water has to
be added or removed periodically.
The evaporation from this pan is found to be less by about 14%
compared to that from unscreened pan.
The pan is placed over a square wooden platform of 1225 mm
width and 100 mm height to enable circulation of air underneath the
pan.

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 Colarado Sunken Pan
This is 92 cm square and 42-92 cm deep and is sunk in the
ground such that only 5-15 cm depth projects above the ground surface
and thus the water level is maintained almost at the ground level. The
evaporation is measured by a point gauge.

Source: [Link]
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 Colarado Sunken Pan

The chief advantage of the sunken pan is that

(i) Radiation and aero dynamic characteristics are similar to
those of lake.
However it has the following disadvantages:
(i) Difficult to detect leaks,
(ii) extra care is needed to keep the surrounding area free from
tall grass, dust, etc., and
(iii) expensive to install

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 Us Geological Survey Floating Pan

With the view to simulate the characteristics of a large body of water,

this square pan (900 mm side and 450 mm depth) supported by drum floats in
the middle of a raft ( 4.25 m x 4.87 m) is set afloat in a lake.
The water level in the pan is kept at the same level as the lake leaving
a rim of 75 mm. Diagonal baffles provided in the pan reduce the surging in the
pan due to wave action.
Its high cost of installation and Maintenance together with the
difficulty involved in performing measurements are its main disadvantages

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US Geological Survey Floating Pan

Source: [Link]

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 Pan coefficient
Evaporation pan data cannot be applied to free water surfaces
directly but must be adjusted for the differences in physical and
climatological factors.
For example, a lake is larger and deeper and may be exposed to
different wind speed, as compared to a pan.
The small volume of water in the metallic pan is greatly affected by
temperature fluctuations in the air or by solar radiations in contrast with
large bodies of water (in the reservoir) with little temperature fluctuations.

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 Pan coefficient

Souce: [Link] Souce: [Link]

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 Pan coefficient
Thus the pan evaporation data have to be corrected to obtain the actual
evaporation from water surfaces of lakes and reservoirs, i.e., by multiplying
by a coefficient called pan coefficient and is defined as

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 Pan coefficient Cp
Evaporation pans are not exact model of large reservoirs and have
drawback as listed below:
• They differ in the heat storing capacity and heat transfer from the
sides and bottom. The sunken pan and floating pan reduces this
deficiency. As a result of this factor the evaporation from a pan
depends to a certain extent on its size. While a pan of 3 m diameter
is known to give a value in which is about the same as from a
neighboring Large lake, a pan of size 1.0m diameter indicates about
20 % excess evaporation than that of the 3 m diameter.
• The height of the rim in an evaporation pan affects the wind action
over the surface. Also, it casts a shadow of variable magnitude over
the water surface
• The heat transfer characteristics of the pan material is different from
that of the reservoir

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 Pan coefficient
In the view of above, the evaporation observed from a pan has to be
corrected to get the evaporation from a lake under similar climate and
exposure conditions. Thus a coefficient is introduced as

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 Evaporation Stations

It is usual to install evaporation pans where other meteorological data are also simultaneously
collected. The WMO recommends the minimum network of evaporimeter stations as below.
1. Arid Zones: One station for every 30,000 km2
2. Humid temperate climates: one station for every 50,000 km2
3. Cold Region : One station for every 100,000 km2
Currently , about 220 pan evaporimeter stations are being maintained by India metrological
Department .

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Points To Be Remembered for solving
Evaporation Numerical Problems

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33
The average water spread areas that are likely to be maintained during the operation of a
reservoir after its completion and the observed monthly pan evaporations at a proposed
reservoir site are given below. Estimate the evaporation loss from the reservoir in Million
m3. If 75% of this loss can be prevented and the water thus saved is utilized to irrigate a
crop with a requirement of 54 cm of water, how much area can be irrigated. Assume a pan
coefficient of 0.7
Average water spread area in
Month Pan evaporation in cm
hectares
January 872.0 10.2
February 797.0 15.3
March 754.5 25.4
April 739.5 30.5
May 726.0 28.0
June 717.5 17.8
July 735.0 15.3
August 765.0 14.0
September 807.5 14.0
October 850.0 15.3
November 891.0 12.7
December 917.0 10.2

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 Monthly lake Monthly
Average water Monthly pan
Month evaporation in cm evaporation loss in
spread area in ha evaporation in cm
(0.7×Pan) ha-cm
Jan. 872 10.2 7.14 6226.08
Feb. 797 15.3 10.71 8535.87
March 754.5 25.4 17.78 13415.01
April 739.5 30.5 21.35 15788.33
May 726 28 19.6 14229.6
June 717.5 17.8 12.46 8940.05
July 735 15.3 10.71 7871.85
Aug. 765 14 9.8 7497
Sept. 807.5 14 9.8 7913.5
Oct. 850 15.3 10.71 9103.5
Nov. 891 12.7 8.89 7920.99
Dec. 917 10.2 7.14 6547.38
Total loss =
Total 9572 — —
113989.16
Empirical Equations for Evaporation from Free-water surface
Fitzgerald’s equation: Evaporation in a day (mm/day)
𝐸 = 0.4 + 0.124𝑉 𝑠 − 𝑎
E= Evaporation in mm/day
es= Saturated vapour pressure at the atmosphere of the water surface in mm of mercury
ea= actual vapour pressure of air in mm of mercury
V= Mean wind velocity at the surface in kmph.

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Empirical Equations for Evaporation from Free-water surface
Horton’s equation: Evaporation in a day (mm/day)
𝐸 = 0.4 𝜓 𝑠 − 𝑎
𝜓 = 2 − exp(−0.124𝑉)
E= Evaporation in mm/day
es= Saturated vapour pressure at the atmosphere of the water surface in mm of mercury
ea= actual vapour pressure of air in mm of mercury
V= Mean wind velocity at the surface in kmph.
For large areas, Horton suggested area factor,
𝜓−1
1−𝑃 +𝑃
𝜓−ℎ
P is fraction of time during which wind is turbulent, and h is relative humidity expression as a fraction

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Empirical Equations for Evaporation from Free-water surface
Meyer’s equation: Evaporation in a day (mm/month)
𝐸 = � 𝑠 − 𝑎 1 + 0.06215𝑉
E= Evaporation in mm/month
es= Saturated vapour pressure at the atmosphere of the water surface in mm of mercury
corresponding to mean monthly water temperature
ea= actual vapour pressure of air in mm of mercury corresponding to mean monthly temperature at 10
m above the water surface
V= Monthly mean wind velocity at 10 m above the ground in kmph.
C=15 for small shallow ponds and 11 for large or deep water body

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Empirical Equations for Evaporation from Free-water surface
Rohwer’s equation: Evaporation in a day (mm/day)
𝐸 = 0.771 1.465 − 0.000732𝑃𝑎 0.44 + 0.07433𝑉 𝑠 − 𝑎
E= Evaporation in mm/day
𝑃𝑎 =Mean barometric pressure in mm of mercury
Other parameters have same meaning as Fitzgerald’s equation
Lake Mead’s equation:
𝐸 = 0.0331𝑉 𝑠 − 𝑎 1 − 0.03 𝑎 − 𝑤
E= Evaporation in mm/day
𝑎 and 𝑤 average air temperature and water temperatures in degree Celsius.
Other parameters have same meaning as Fitzgerald’s equation

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 Water Vapour
• Vapour pressure is defined as the partial pressure exerted by water vapour in the air.
• Consider moist air in a closed container:
•It exerts a total pressure p on the container.
•If all water vapour is removed without changing temperature, the remaining dry air
exerts a lower pressure p′.
•The difference (p − p′) represents the pressure contribution of water vapour.
•This difference is the vapour pressure.
•The greater the amount of vapour present in air, the higher the vapour pressure.

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 Water Vapour
•Vapour pressure is usually denoted by e.
•It is expressed in:
•Millibars (mb)
•Millimetres of mercury (mm Hg)
•Standard relationships:
•1 millibar = one-thousandth of standard barometric pressure.
•Standard barometric pressure ≈ 10⁵ N/m².
•1 mb = 100 N/m².
•1 mm Hg = 1.33 mb.
•Mean sea level standard atmospheric pressure at 15°C is 1013 mb.

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 Saturation Vapour Pressure
•For any given temperature, there is a limit to the amount of water vapour that air can
hold.
•When air holds the maximum possible water vapour at a given temperature, it is said
to be saturated.
•The partial pressure exerted by water vapour under saturated conditions is called the
saturation vapour pressure.
•Saturation vapour pressure is denoted by eₛ.
•Saturation vapour pressure increases with increase in temperature.
•It can be approximated using the equation:
17.27
𝑠 = 6.11 𝑥
237.3 +
•Where:
•eₛ is in millibars (mb).
•T is temperature in °C.
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 Saturated Vapour Pressure Table
17.27 𝑇
•It can be approximated using the equation: 𝑠 = 6.11 𝑥
237.3+𝑇
•Where: eₛ is in millibars (mb) and T is temperature in °C.
Saturated Vapour Pressure Table
T (°C) eₛ (mb) T (°C) eₛ (mb) T (°C) eₛ (mb) T (°C) eₛ (mb) T (°C) eₛ (mb)
0 6.1078 10 12.272 20 23.373 30 42.430 40 73.777
1 6.5662 11 13.119 21 24.861 31 44.927 41 77.802
2 7.0457 12 14.017 22 26.430 32 47.551 42 82.015
3 7.5753 13 14.969 23 28.086 33 50.307 43 86.423
4 8.1294 14 15.977 24 29.831 34 53.200 44 91.034
5 8.7192 15 17.044 25 31.671 35 56.236 45 95.855
6 9.3465 16 18.173 26 33.608 36 59.422 46 100.89
7 10.013 17 19.367 27 35.649 37 62.762 47 106.16
8 10.722 18 20.630 28 37.796 38 66.264 48 111.66
9 11.474 19 21.964 29 40.055 39 69.934 49 117.40

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 Relative Humidity

𝑒
Relative humidity, ℎ = × 100 in percentage at a particular
𝑒𝑠
temperature

44
The following meteorological data pertain to a large reservoir with a water spread area
of 15 km². The data represents the average values for the day.
Water temperature = 24°C
Air temperature = 26°C
Atmospheric pressure = 752 mm of mercury
Wind speed at 0.5 m above ground level = 25.3 km/h
Relative humidity = 46%
Estimate the average daily evaporation from the reservoir and also the evaporation
losses from the reservoir for a period of one week using different empirical formulae.

The saturation vapour pressure corresponding to the water temperature of 24°C = 29.831 mb or 29.831/1.33 =
22.43 mm of mercury.

Saturation vapour pressure corresponding to air temperature of 26°C = 33.608 mb or 33.608/1.33 = 25.27 mm
of mercury.

Actual vapour pressure in air = 25.27*0.46 = 11.62 mm of mercury

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i) Fitzgerald’s equation
𝐸 = 0.4 + 0.124𝑉 𝑠 − 𝑎
= 0.4 + 0.124 ∗ 25.3 22.43 − 11.62
= 38.24 /�𝑎�

Evaporation loss in one week = 7*38.34 mm

38.34
Evaporation loss in one week in term of volume = 7 ∗ ∗ 15 ∗ 106
1000
= 4.0152 𝑀 3

Horton’s equation: Evaporation in a day (mm/day)

𝐸 = 0.4 𝜓 𝑠 − 𝑎
𝜓 = 2 − exp −0.124𝑉
𝜓 = 2 − exp −0.124 ∗ 25.3 = 1.9566
𝐸 = 0.4 1.9566 ∗ 22.43 − 11.62 = 12.91 /�𝑎�
Evaporation loss in one week (volume) = 1.356𝑀 3

46
Meyer’s equation: Evaporation in a day (mm/month)
𝐸 = � 𝑠 − 𝑎 1 + 0.06215𝑉
E= Evaporation in mm/month
es= Saturated vapour pressure at the atmosphere of the water surface in mm of mercury
corresponding to mean monthly water temperature
ea= actual vapour pressure of air in mm of mercury corresponding to mean monthly temperature at
10 m above the water surface
V= Monthly mean wind velocity at 10 m above the ground in kmph.
C=15 for small shallow ponds and 11 for large or deep water body
0.15 0.15
𝑉10 10 𝑉10 10
= → =
𝑉0.5 0.5 25.4 0.5

𝑉10 = 36.653 𝑘 ℎ
𝐸 = � 𝑠 − 𝑎 1 + 0.06215𝑉
11
𝐸= 22.43 − 11.62 1 + 0.06215 × 39.653
30
𝐸 = 13.72 /�𝑎�
For one week, 𝐸 = 1.442 𝑀 3 47
Rohwer’s equation: Evaporation in a day (mm/day)
𝐸 = 0.771 1.465 − 0.000732𝑃𝑎 0.44 + 0.07433𝑉 𝑠 − 𝑎
E= Evaporation in mm/day
𝑃𝑎 =Mean barometric pressure in mm of mercury
Other parameters have same meaning as Fitzgerald’s equation

𝐸 = 0.771 1.465 − 0.000732 × 752 0.44 + 0.07433 × 25.3 22.43 − 11.62

𝐸 = 17.5 /�𝑎�

Lake Mead’s equation:

𝐸 = 0.0331𝑉 𝑠 − 𝑎 1 − 0.03 𝑎 − 𝑤
E= Evaporation in mm/day
𝑎 and 𝑤 average air temperature and water temperatures in degree Celsius.
Other parameters have same meaning as Fitzgerald’s equation
𝐸 = 0.0331 × 25.3 22.43 − 11.62 1 − 0.03 26 − 24
𝐸 = 8.51 /�𝑎�

48
 Water Balance Method
The general water balance equation for any time interval such as a day or a week may be written as:
�1 + 𝑃 + 𝑉 𝑠𝑖 + 𝑉 𝑔𝑖 − 𝑉 𝑠𝑜 − 𝑉 𝑔𝑜 − 𝐸 − 𝑅 = �2

where:
S₁ = storage at the beginning of the time interval
P = precipitation falling into the water body
𝑉 𝑠𝑖 = volume of surface inflow entering the water body
𝑉 𝑔𝑖 = volume of groundwater inflow entering the water body
𝑉 𝑠𝑜 = volume of surface outflow leaving the water body
𝑉 𝑔𝑜 = volume of groundwater outflow leaving the water body
E = evaporation from the water body
TR = transpiration losses from the water body, if any
S₂ = storage at the end of the time interval.

𝑉 𝑠𝑜 , 𝑉 𝑔𝑜 , and 𝑅 measurements generally have higher uncertainty and errors.

49
 Energy Balance Method

[Link]

50
 Energy Balance Method
Energy balance equation for any time interval for a given surface area
Qi + Qa = Qr + Qb + Qe + Qh + Qs
Q i → incoming shortwave solar radiation both direct and diffused
Q a →net energy advected into the body of water by the sum of processes such as rainfall, inflow,
outflow, seepage etc.
Q r → the reflected shortwave solar radiation
Q b → the net outgoing longwave radiation
Q e → the energy utilized for evaporation . If Le is latent heat of vapourization, then Q e = 𝜌 Le E
Q h → the energy conducted and convected from water surface to the atmosphere or sensible heat
Q s → the energy stored in water
Bowen’s ratio with P atmospheric pressure in mb or mm of mercury:
Qh Ts ‒Ta
R= = 0.00061 P → Q h = RQ e
Qe es ‒ea
Qi‒ Qr‒ Qb + Qa‒ Qs
E=
𝜌 Le 1 + R
Q i ‒ Q r ‒ Q b → can be measured by radiometers. But Q a & Q s can be evaluated from water budget
approximately only. For most lakes, Q a &Q s cancel each other.
51
 Mass Transfer Method
• Turbulent transfer of water vapour considered. It can be called as vapour flow approach or
aerodynamic approach. Based on logarithmic boundary layer theory for wind velocity,
46.08 e1 ‒ e2 V1 ‒ V2
𝐸=
z2 2
T + 273 ln
z1
𝐸 → Evaporation in mm/hr
V1 &V2 → wind velocities in kmph at z1 (m) and z2 (m) respectively
e1 &e2 → vapour pressures in mm of mercury at z1 (m) and z2 (m) respectively
T → average temperature in oC between z1 and z2
• If z1 at the thin water vapour layer at the water surface, e1 = es and the equation modifies to Dalton
equation (1802),
𝐸 = a + b V es ‒ e
e →vapour pressure in mm of mercury at which velocity V is measured.

52
 Mass Transfer Method
Case 1 (rare case): Water temperature is same as air temperature.
Evaporation when water and air temperatures are same:
Ea = C. 𝜓(V)(es ‒ ea )

C → empirical coefficient
𝜓(V) → function of wind velocity V
V →wind speed measured at stipulated height above water surface
es →saturated vapour pressure corresponding to temperature
ea →actual vapour pressure in the air above

Penman suggested following:

Ea = 0.35(0.5 + 0.54 V)(es ‒ ea )
Ea →evaporation in mm/day
V →wind velocity in m/s at height 2 m above water surface
es &ea → are in mm of mercury

53
 Mass Transfer Method

Case 2 (more practical): Water temperature is not same as air temperature.

Evaporation when water and air temperatures are same:
Ea = C. 𝜓(V)(e′s ‒ ea )

C → empirical coefficient
𝜓(V) → function of wind velocity V
V →wind speed measured at stipulated height above water surface
e′s → vapour pressure of the thin film of vapour exists between water and air
ea →actual vapour pressure in the air above

54
 Combined Energy Budget and Mass Transfer Approach
• Data requirements for Energy budgetPenman’s Equation
and Mass transfer
method are difficult to obtain. Penman addressed it by
combining them (1948).
Ea (es ‒ ea )
= ′
E (es ‒ ea )
Check further derivation’s if interested in Section 7.4.5 in
Jaya Rami Reddy
Qi‒ Qr‒ Qb + Qa‒ Qs Qn
E= =
Le 1 + R Le 1 + R

Q n → net solar radiation used in evaporating water. From

Qh Ts ‒Ta
Bowen’s ration R = = 0.00061 P
Qe es ‒ea

Ts ′‒ Ta
R = 0.00061 P
es ′‒ ea
Ts ′ →saturated vapour film’s temperature with es ′ mm of
mercury saturated vapour pressure 55
 Combined Energy Budget and Mass Transfer Approach
Penman’s Equation
es ′‒ es
∆=
Ts ′‒ Ta
es ′‒ es
Ts ′‒ Ta =
∆
es ′‒ ea
R = 0.00061 P
∆ es ′‒ ea
es ′‒ es
R = 0.00061 P
∆ es ′‒ ea
Ts ′ removed. Now es ′ should be removed.
es ′‒ es es ′‒ ea + ea ‒ es
=
es ′‒ ea es ′‒ ea
es ′‒ es es ‒ ea
= 1‒
es ′‒ ea es ′‒ ea
E (e ‒e )
Using a = s′ a ==>
E (es ‒ea )
es ′‒ es Ea
= 1‒ 56
es ′‒ ea E
 Combined Energy Budget and Mass Transfer Approach
Penman’s Equation
es ′‒es E
Substituting, = 1‒ a in expression for Bowen’s ratio,
es ′‒ea E
e ′‒e P E‒Ea
R= 0.00061 P s s ➔ R = 0.00061
es ′‒ea ∆ E
Qn Qn
E= = P E‒Ea
Le 1+R Le 1+0.00061 ∆ E
Penman’s equation of evaporation
Qn ∆
+0.00061 [Link]
Le
E= in this equation Ea should be cm/day
∆+0.00061P
Ea = 0.35(0.5 + 0.54 V)(es ‒ ea ) in mm/day
es →saturated vapour pressure for mean daily temperature in mm of mercury
ea →actual vapour pressure in mm of mercury
V →wind velocity in m/s at height 2 m above water surface
4098 es o
∆= 2 in mb/ C
237.3+t
es in mbar and t is air temperatue in oC

57
 Combined Energy Budget and Mass Transfer Approach
Penman’s Equation
Penman’s equation of evaporation
Qn ∆
Le
+0.00061 [Link] N → Maximum number of sunshine hours (Table 7.2)
E= in this equation Ea should be 𝜃 →Latitude of the place
∆+0.00061P
cm/day Qb →net outgoing radiation
Ea = 0.35(0.5 + 0.54 V)(es ‒ ea ) in mm/day 4
n
Qb = 𝜎T 0.56‒ 0.09 ea 0.1 + 0.9
es →saturated vapour pressure for mean daily N
temperature in mm of mercury 𝜎 → 𝑠� 𝑛𝑛𝑎𝑣 − 𝐵��� 𝑎𝑣 𝑐�𝑣𝑠�𝑎𝑣�
ea →actual vapour pressure in mm of mercury 𝜎 = 118.944 × 10−9 cal/sq cm/day/K
V →wind velocity in m/s at height 2 m above water T →mean daily temperature in K
surface ea → actual vapour pressure in mm of mercury
4098 es �
∆= 2 in mb/ �
237.3+t Data required for Penman’s equation:
es in mbar and t is air temperatue in oC
• Daily avg atmospheric pressure
Le = 597.3‒ 0.564 t cal/g • Daily avg temperature
Qn = Q i (1‒ r)‒ Qb cal/[Link] and r is reflection • Daily avg vapour pressure
coefficient which is 0.05 for water • Actual number of sunshine hours
n
Net incoming solar radiation Q i = Q0 a + 0.55 • Daily avg wind velocity at 2 m above the water
N
𝑎 = 0.29 cos 𝜃 surface
Q0 → radiation in cal/sq cm/day (Table 7.1) 58
n → actual number of sunshine hours
Compute the daily evaporation from a class A pan if the amount of water added to bring the
level of the fixed points are as follows:

a. What is the evaporation loss of water in this week from a lake (surface area = 640 ha) in
the vicinity, assuming a pan coefficient of 0.75?

b. The total observed runoff volume during a storm of 6-hr duration with a uniform intensity
of 15 mm/hr is 21.6 Mm3. If the area of the basin is 300 km2, find the average infiltration rate
and the runoff coefficient for the basin.

59
 Solution
a. What is the evaporation loss of water in this week from a lake
(surface area = 640 ha) in the vicinity, assuming a pan coefficient of 0.75?

60
 Solution
b. The total observed runoff volume during a storm of 6-hr duration with a uniform
intensity of 15 mm/hr is 21.6 Mm3. If the area of the basin is 300 km2, find the average
infiltration rate and the runoff coefficient for the basin.

61
 Problem 2
(A) Reservoir with a surface area of 250 hectares had the following average values of climate
parameters during a week: water temperature =20⁰, Relative humidity= 40%, wind velocity
at 1 m above ground surface = 16 km/hr Estimate the average daily evaporation from the
like by using Meyer’s formula.
(B) An ISI Standard evaporation pan at the site indicated a pan coefficient of 0.8 on the basis of
calibration against controlled water budgeting method, if this pan indicated an evaporation
of 72mm in the week under question, (i) estimate the accuracy if Meyer’s method relative to
the Pan evaporation measurements. (ii) Also estimate the volume of water evaporated from
the lake in that week

62
 Solution
(A) Reservoir with a surface area of 250 hectares had the following average values f
climate parameters during a week: water temperature =20⁰, Relative humidity= 40%, wind
velocity at 1 m above ground surface = 16 km/hr. Estimate the average daily evaporation
from the like by using meyer’s formula.

63
 Solution
An ISI Standard evaporation pan at the site indicated a pan
coefficient of 0.8 on the basis of calibration against controlled water
budgeting method, if this pan indicated an evaporation of 72mm in the
week under question, (i) estimate the accuracy if Meyer’s method relative
to the Pan evaporation measurements. (ii) Also estimate the volume of
water evaporated from the lake in that week
Daily evaporation as per Pan evaporimeter
Error by Meyer's formula (8.33-8.97) = - 0.74 mm. Hence, Meyer's method
overestimates the evaporation relative to the Pan.
Percentage over estimation by Meyer's formula (0.74/8.23) x 100 = 9%
(ii) Considering the Pan measurements as the basis, volume of water
evaporated from the lake in 7 days

[The lake area is assumed to be constant at 250 ha]

64
 Reservoir evaporation and control
The following are some of the recommended measures to reduce evaporation from water
surfaces
(i) Storage reservoirs of more depth and less surface area, i.e., by choosing a cross
section of the reservoir like a deep storage (Fig) while the surface water is exposed to
temperature gradients the deeper waters are cool; from this standpoint a large reservoir is
preferable to a number of small reservoirs (while it is the reverse from the point of flood
control).

65
 Reservoir evaporation and control

(ii) By growing tall trees like Causerina on the windward

side of the reservoirs to act as wind breakers.

(iii) By allowing flow of water, temperature is

reduced and evaporation is reduced; i.e., by Source: [Link]
designing the outlet works so that the warmer
surface water can be released.

(iv) By removing the water loving weeds and plants like

Phreatophytes from the periphery of the reservoir.

Source: [Link]

66
 Reservoir evaporation and control
(v) By spraying certain chemicals or fatty acids and formation of films. By spreading a
manomolecular layer of cetyl alcohol (hexadecanol) C16H33OH over the reservoir surface
(from boats)—a film is formed on the surface which is only 0.015 micron (approx.) in
thickness
It is a polar compound and it has great affinity for water on one side (hydrophylic)
and repels water on the other side (hydrophobic). The film will only allow precipitation
from the top into it but will not allow water molecules to escape from it.

Source: [Link]
67
 Reservoir evaporation and control
This method is readily effective when the wind velocities are less. If the wind
velocity is more, it will sweep the film off the water surface and deposit it on the bank.

However the film is pervious to O2 and CO2. About 2.2 kg (22 N) of Acetyl
alcohol is required to cover an area of 1 ha of reservoir surface. It is best suited for
small and medium size reservoirs.

Cetyl Alcohol

Source: [Link]

68
 Reservoir evaporation and control
(vi) By straightening the stream-channels the exposed area of the water
surface (along the length) is reduced and hence evaporation is reduced.
(vii) By providing mechanical coverings like thin polythene sheets to small
agricultural ponds and lakes.

Source: [Link]

69
 Reservoir evaporation and control
(viii) By developing underground reservoirs, since the evaporation from a
ground water table is very much less than the evaporation from a water
surface.

Source: [Link]
Source: [Link]

(ix) If the reservoir is surrounded by huge trees and forest, the

evaporation loss will be less due to cooler environment.

70
Points To Be Remembered for solving
Evaporation Numerical Problems

Values of PAN Coefficient

71
 Problems to practice
Problem 3
A class A pan was set up adjacent to a lake. The depth of water in the pan
at the beginning of a certain week was 195 mm. In that week there was a
rainfall of 45 mm and 15 mm of water was removed from the pan to keep
the water level within the specified depth range. If the depth of the water
in the pan at the end of the week was 190 mm calculate the pan
evaporation. Using a suitable pan coefficient estimate the lake
evapotranspiration in that week

Initial depth= 195 mm

Answer : 24.5 mm Depth of water after rainfall= 195+45= 240
Depth of water after removing 15 mm = 225 mm
Final depth is 190mm
Evaporated depth= 225-190= 35 mm (pan evaporation )
Lake evaporation = 35*0.7= 24.5 mm

72
Problems to practice
Problem 4
A reservoir has an average area of 50 km2 over an year. The normal
annual rainfall at the place is 120 cm and the class A pan evaporation is
240 cm. Assuming the land flooded by the reservoir has a runoff
coefficient of 0.4, estimate the net annual increase or decrease in the
streamflow as a result of the reservoir.
A= 50 km 2
Rainfall = 120 cm
Runoff= 0.4* 120 cm= 48
Depth of rainfall in the reservoir (or) effective rainfall= 120-48 cm= 72 cm
Reservoir evaporation= pan coefficient * pan evaporation
= 0.7* 240
= 168 cm
Water level fall in the reservoir= (168-72)= 96cm
Stream flow= area * depth of runoff
= 50*1000000* 0.96= 48Mm3

Answer : Decrease, 46 Mm3

73
 Evapo-Transpiration
• Evapotranspiration (Et) or consumptive use (U) is the total water lost from a cropped (or
irrigated) land due to evaporation from the soil and transpiration by the plants or used by
the plants in building up of plant tissue

Source: [Link]

74
 Consumptive Use of water

It is the quantity of water used by the vegetation growth of a given area.

It is the amount of water required by a crop for its vegetated growth to
evapotranspiration and building of plant tissues plus evaporation from soils and
intercepted precipitation.
It is expressed in terms of depth of water. Consumptive use varies with
temperature, humidity, wind speed, topography, sunlight hours, method of irrigation,
moisture availability.

75
 Potential Evapo-Transpiration
(PET)
For a given set of atmospheric conditions, evapotranspiration depends on the
availability of water. If sufficient moisture is always available to completely meet the needs of
vegetation fully covering the area, the resulting evapotranspiration is called potential
evapotranspiration (PET).

Actual Evapo-Transpiration
(AET)
The real evapotranspiration occurring in a specific situation is called actual
evapotranspiration (AET). Actual Evapotranspiration is the amount of water transferred to
the air from these two processes (Evaporation and Transpiration) which depends on the
Field capacity of the soil.

76
 Potential – Actual Evapo-Transpiration
(PE) (AE)

PE is a measure of the
ability of the atmosphere to AE is the quantity of water
remove water from the that is actually removed from
surface through the a surface due to the
processes of evaporation processes of evaporation and
and transpiration assuming transpiration
no control on water supply.

Source: [Link]

77
 Important Terms
It is necessary to introduce two terms at this stage,
➢ Fields capacity and
➢ Permanent wilting point
Field capacity is the maximum quantity of water that the soil can
retain against the force of gravity
Permanent wilting point is the moisture content of a soil at which
the moisture is no longer available in sufficient quantity to sustain the
plants. At this stage even though the soil contains some moisture, it will be
so tightly held by the soil grains that the roots of the plants are not able to
extract it in sufficient quantities to sustain the plants and consequently
plants wilt
The difference between these two moisture contents is called available
water

78
 Potential – Actual Evapo-Transpiration
If the water supply to the plant is adequate, soil moisture will be at the field capacity
and AET will be equal to PET. If the water supply is less than PET, the soil dries out and the
ratio AET/PET would then be less than unity.
The decrease of the ratio AET/PET with available moisture depends upon the type of
soil and rate of drying. Generally, for clayey soils, AET/PET = 1.0 for nearly 50% drop in the
available moisture. As can be expected, when the soil moisture reaches the permanent
wilting point, the AET reduces to zero

79
Potential – Actual Evapo-Transpiration
Variation of AET

AET/PET (Percentage)

Percent available Moisture

Source: [Link]

80
 PET in India
• Using Penman's equation and the available climatological data, PET estimate for the
country has been made.
• The mean annual PET (in cm) over various parts of the country is shown in the form of
isopleths—the lines on a map through places having equal depths of evapotranspiration
• It is seen that the annual PET ranges from 140 to 180 cm over most parts of the
country.
• The annual PET is highest at Rajkot, Gujarat with a value of 214.5 cm.
• Extreme south-east of Tamil Nadu also show high average values greater than 180 cm.
• The highest PET for southern peninsula is at Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu with a value of
209 cm.
• The variation of monthly PET at some stations located in different climatic zones in the
country is shown in Fig

81
 PET in India

Source: Scientific Report No. 136, IMD, 1971,Government of India

82
 Monthly Variation of PET

Source: Scientific Report No. 136, IMD, 1971,Government of India

83
 Factors affecting evapotranspiration
Weather parameters, crop characteristics, management and environmental
aspects are factors affecting evaporation and transpiration.

• Climatological factors like percentage sunshine hours, wind

speed, mean monthly temperature and humidity.
• Crop factors like the type of crop and the percentage growing
season.
• The moisture level in the soil.

Source: [Link]

84
 Weather parameters
The principal weather parameters affecting evapotranspiration are
Radiation,
Air temperature,
Humidity and
Wind speed.
Several procedures have been developed to assess the evaporation rate
from these parameters. The evaporation power of the atmosphere is
expressed by the reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo).
The reference crop evapotranspiration represents the
evapotranspiration from a standardized vegetated surface.

85
 Reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo)

The reference surface is a hypothetical grass reference crop with an assumed

crop height of 0.12 m, a fixed surface resistance of 70 sm-1 and an albedo of 0.23.
The reference surface closely resembles an extensive surface of green, well-
watered grass of uniform height, actively growing and completely shading the ground.

The potential evapotranspiration of any other crop (ET) is calculated by

multiplying the reference crop evapotranspiration by a coefficient K, the value of
which changes with stage of the crop.
Thus PET = K (ET0)

86
 Crop factors

The crop type, variety and development stage should be

considered when assessing the evapotranspiration from crops grown in
large, well-managed fields.
Differences in resistance to transpiration, crop height, crop
roughness, reflection, ground cover and crop rooting characteristics result
in different ET levels in different types of crops under identical
environmental conditions.
Crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc) refers to
the evaporating demand from crops that are grown in large fields under
optimum soil water, excellent management and environmental conditions,
and achieve full production under the given climatic conditions.

87
Crop factors

Source: [Link]

88
 Management and environmental
conditions
Environmental Conditions
• Factors such as soil salinity, poor land fertility, limited application of
fertilizers, the presence of hard or impenetrable soil horizons, the absence
of control of diseases and pests, and poor soil management may limit the
crop development and reduce the evapotranspiration.
• Other factors to be considered when assessing ET are ground cover, plant
density and the soil water content.
• The effect of soil water content on ET is conditioned primarily by the
magnitude of the water deficit and the type of soil.
• On the other hand, too much water will result in waterlogging which might
damage the root and limit root water uptake by inhibiting respiration.

89
 Management and environmental
Management Pracitices
conditions
• Cultivation practices and the type of irrigation method can alter the
microclimate, affect the crop characteristics or affect the wetting of the
soil and crop surface.
• A windbreak reduces wind velocities and decreases the ET rate of the field
directly beyond the barrier.
• Soil evaporation in a young orchard, where trees are widely spaced, can
be reduced by using a well-designed drip or trickle irrigation system.
• The use of mulches, especially when the crop is small, is another way of
substantially reducing soil evaporation.
• Anti-transpirants, such as stomata-closing, film-forming or reflecting
material, reduce the water losses from the crop and hence the
transpiration rate.

90
 Measurement of Evapotranspiration
The measurement of evapotranspiration for a given vegetation type
can be carried out in two ways: either by using lysimeters or by the use
of field plots.
Lysimeter
• A lysimeter is a special watertight tank containing a block of soil and set
in a field of growing plants.
• The plants grown in the lysimeter are the same as in the surrounding
field.
• Evapotranspiration is estimated in terms of the amount of water
required to maintain constant moisture conditions within the tank
measured either volumetrically or gravimetrically through an
arrangement made in the lysimeter.
• They should be so buried that the soil is at the same level inside and
outside the container. Lysimeter studies are time-consuming and
expensive.

91
 Lysimeter

Source: [Link]
Source: [Link]

92
 Field Plots

In special plot all the elements of the water budget in a known

interval of time are measured and the evapotranspiration determined as
Evapotranspiration = [precipitation + irrigation input – runoff - increase in
soil storage groundwater loss]
Measurements are usually confined to precipitation, irrigation
input, surface runoff and soil moisture. Groundwater loss due to deep
percolation is difficult to measure and can be minimised by keeping the
moisture condition of the plot at the field capacity. This method provides
fairly reliable results.

93
 Estimation of Evapotranspiration

The lack of reliable field data and the difficulties of obtaining reliable
evapotranspiration data have given rise to a number of methods to
predict PET by using climatological data. Large number of formulae are
available: they range from purely empirical ones to those backed by
theoretical concepts. Two useful equations are given below.

Refer Jaya Rami Reddy 7.4.5 and 7.8.4 for Blaney-Criddle equation,
Thornthwaite equation, and Penman equation and related example
problems

94
 Important Reading

Refer Jaya Rami Reddy 7.4.5 and 7.8.4 for Blaney-Criddle equation,
Thornthwaite equation, and Penman equation and related example
problems

Example 7.6, 7.7 and 7.8

95
Infiltration
Richards Equation and
Green-Ampt Solution

Dr. Selva Balaji M, Ph.D. IIT Kharagpur

BITS Pilani
All these content Available in Applied Hydrology by Ven Te Chow Chapter 4 (Page 99
to 117) including examples 4.1.1, 4.2.1 and 4.3.1.

Also:
[Link]

[Link]
[Link]

[Link]
[Link]

[Link]
[Link]

[Link]

Last link (Lecture) has Green-Ampt derivation and Solved example. However, the notations in
Ven Te Chow and the pdf links differ a bit. Check for effective saturation Se is 𝜎e on pdf. Also
porosity η is mentioned as 𝜀 is pdf. You should learn how to use your calculator to find
solution to the equation.
Introduction

Subsurface water flows beneath the land surface.

It includes various processes that govern the
movement of water through soil and rock layers.

Three important processes:-

1. Infiltration of surface water into the soil to
become soil moisture
2. subsurface flow or unsaturated flow through Fig.1 Subsurface water zones and processes.
the soil.
3. Groundwater flow or saturated flow through
soil or rock strata.
Soil and rock strata which permit water flow are called porous media.
The water table is the surface where the water in a saturated porous medium is at atmospheric
pressure.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Porosity

The porosity is defined as

𝑉𝑜�𝑪 𝑜𝑙 �𝑜𝑖��
Porosity , 𝜂 = Where, 0.25 < 𝜂 < 0.75 (1)
𝑇𝑜 𝑎� �𝑜�𝑪

A part of the voids is occupied by water and the remainder

by air. The volume occupied by water being measured by the
soil moisture content � is defined as
𝑉𝑡𝑙�� 𝑡𝑙 𝜆�𝜀 �
�= (2)
�𝑡𝜀�𝑙 𝑉𝑡𝑙��

Fig. 2 Cross section through an unsaturated

porous medium

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Continuity Equation
▪ A control volume containing unsaturated soil.
▪ Sides have length dx, dy, and dz, in the
coordinate directions, so its volume is dx dy dz,
and the volume of water contained in the control
volume is � dx dy dz.
▪ The volumetric flow rate per unit area of soil,
𝑄
Darcy flux q =
𝐴
▪ In the Reynolds transport theorem, the extensive
property B is the mass of soil water, hence 𝛽 =
Fig. 3 Control volume for development of �� ��
the continuity equation in an unsaturated = 1 and = 0 because no phase changes
� �
porous medium. areoccurring in the water. (3)

�
0= ම 𝜌 �∀ + ඵ 𝜌 𝑉. �𝐴
𝜌 is density of water. �𝜀
𝑐� 𝑐�
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Continuity Equation (Contd.)

The time rate of change of the mass of water stored within the control volume, which is given by

� �
ම 𝜌 �∀= (𝜌 � �� � �𝜋)
�𝜀 �𝜀
𝑐�

� � �𝜃
�
‫𝑧� 𝜋� ��� 𝜌 =)𝜋� � �� � 𝜌( � =∀� 𝜌 �𝑐׮‬ (4)

where the density is assumed constant and the partial derivative suffices because the spatial
dimensions of the control volume are fixed. The second term in (3) is the net outflow of water across
the control surface.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Continuity Equation (Contd.)

𝜕𝑞
ඵ 𝜌 𝑉. �∀ = 𝜌 𝑞+ �𝜋 ��� − 𝜌 𝑞 �𝜋 �
𝜕𝜋
𝑐�

𝜕𝑞 (5)
= 𝜌 ��� �𝜋
𝜕𝜋

Substituting (4) and (5) into (3) and dividing by 𝜌 ��� �𝜋 gives

𝜕� 𝜕𝑞
+ =0 (6)
𝜕𝜀 𝜕𝜋

This is the continuity equation for one-dimensional unsteady unsaturated flow in a porous
medium.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Momentum Equation

Darcy's Law was developed to relate the Darcy flux q to the rate of head loss per unit length of medium, Sf

𝑞 = 𝐾𝑆𝑙 (7)

𝜕ℎ
Consider flow in the vertical direction and denote the total head of the flow by h, 𝑆𝑙 = −𝐾 ,
𝜕𝑧

where the negative sign indicates that the total head is decreasing in the direction of flow because
of friction. Darcy's law is then expressed as
𝜕ℎ (8)
𝑞 = −𝐾
𝜕𝜋
For unconfined saturated flow the only two forces involved are gravity and friction, but for unsaturated
flow the suction force binding water to soil particles through surface tension must also be included.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 Momentum Equation
ℎ = 𝜓+𝑍
(9)
Substituting for h,
𝜕(𝜓 + 𝑍)
𝑞 = −𝐾
𝜕𝜋
(10)
�𝜓 𝜕�
=− 𝐾 +𝐾
�� 𝜕𝜋

𝜕𝜃 �𝜓
𝑞 = 𝐷 𝜕𝑧 + 𝐾, where D = 𝐾 �𝜃 , 𝐷 → 𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑙 �𝑖𝑙𝑙� 𝑖 𝑖𝜀

One-dimensional form of Richard's equation (11)

Fig. 4 Variation of soil suction head and 𝜕� 𝜕 𝜕� (12)

= 𝐷 +𝐾
hydraulic conductivity with moisture content 𝜕𝜀 𝜕𝜋 𝜕𝜋
for YoIo light clay. BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
INFILTRATION

Infiltration is the process of water penetrating from the ground surface into the soil.

Factors that influence the infiltration rate:

• Condition of soil surface
• Vegetation cover
• Properties of soil (Porosity, hydraulic conductivity etc.)
• Current moisture content of soil
There are four moisture zones:a saturated zone near the surface, a
transmission zone of unsaturated flow and fairly uniform moisture
content, a wetting zone in which moisture decreases with depth,
and a wetting front where the change of moisture content with
depth is so great as to give the appearance of a sharp
discontinuity between the wet soil above and the dry soil below.
Fig.5 Moisture zones during infiltration

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Horton’s Equation

The infiltration rate f, is the rate at which water enters the soil at the surface. The cumulative infiltration F is the
accumulated depth of water infiltrated during a given time period and is equal to the integral of the infiltration rate
over that period.

𝐹 𝜀 = න 𝑙 𝜏 �𝜏
0 (12)

Horton's Equation
−𝑘
𝑙 𝜀 = 𝑙𝑐 + (𝑙0 − 𝑙𝑐) (13)
where k is a decay constant.

This k is not same as Hydraulic

Conductivity
Fig.6 (a) Variation of the parameter k (b) Infiltration rate and cumulative
infiltration.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Philip's Equation & Green-AMPT

.
𝐹 𝜀 = 𝑆 𝜀 − 05 + 𝐾 (14)

where S is a parameter called sorptivity, which is a function of the soil suction potential, and K is the
hydraulic conductivity.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Philip's Equation

GREEN-AMPT METHOD
The Green-Ampt method is a widely used approach for
estimating infiltration. The Green-Ampt model assumes
that infiltration occurs as a sharp wetting front,
separating the saturated and unsaturated zones in the
soil.

The wetting front is a sharp boundary dividing the soil

moisture content θi

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Green-Ampt

𝐹 𝜀 = �(𝜂 − �𝑖)

= �Δ� (15)

Where L = depth, �𝑖 is the initial moisture content, 𝜂 is

porosity
𝜕ℎ
𝑞 = −𝐾
𝜕𝜋
ℎ1 − ℎ2
𝑙=𝐾
𝜋1 − 𝜋2 (16)
Fig.7 Variables in the Green-
Ampt infiltration model. The The head h1 at the surface is equal to the ponded depth ho .
vertical axis is the distance Fig.8 Infiltration into a
The head h2, in the dry soil below the wetting front,
from the soil surface, the column of soil of unit
horizontal axis is the moisture
equals−𝜓 − � if ponded depth is negligible compared to cross-sectional area for
content of the soil. 𝜓, � . This assumption is usually appropriate for surface the Green-Ampt model.
water hydrology problems because it is assumed that
ponded water becomes surface runoff
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Green Amt.

Darcy's law for this system is written

ℎ0 − (− 𝜓 − �)
𝑙=𝐾
�

( 𝜓 + �)
𝑙=𝐾 (17)
�

wetting front depth is L = F/Δ�, and assuming ho =0 , substituting

𝜓 Δ� + 𝐹 (18)
𝑙=𝐾
𝐹

�𝐹 𝜓 Δ� + 𝐹
=𝐾
�𝜀 𝐹

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Green Amt.

To solve for F, cross-multiply to obtain,

𝐹
�𝐹 = 𝐾�𝜀
𝐹 + 𝜓 Δ�

then split the left-hand side into two parts

𝐹 + 𝜓 Δ� 𝜓 Δ�
− �𝐹 = 𝐾�𝜀
𝐹 + 𝜓 Δ� 𝐹 + 𝜓 Δ�

And Integrate,

𝐹( )
𝜓 Δ�
න 1− �𝐹 = න 𝐾�𝜀
0 𝐹 + 𝜓 Δ� 0

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Green Amt.

To obtain,

𝐹 𝜀 − 𝜓 Δ� 𝑙 𝐹 𝜀 + 𝜓 Δ� − ln( 𝜓 Δ�) = 𝐾 𝜀 (19)

or

𝐹 (20)
𝐹 𝜀 − 𝜓 Δ�ln 1 + =𝐾𝜀
𝜓 Δ𝜃

This is the Green-Ampt equation for cumulative infiltration. Once F is found by successive iterations, f can be
found by

𝜓 Δ�
𝑙=𝐾 +1 (21)
𝐹(𝜀)

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Green Amt.

Green - Ampt Parameters

Application of the Green-Ampt model requires estimates of the hydraulic conductivity K, the porosity 𝜂, and the
wetting front soil suction head 𝜓.

� − �𝑟
Effective saturation, 𝑆 =
𝜂 − �𝑟

Where � − �𝑟 is called effective porosity � and 𝑆 is the effective saturation

Effective porosity, � = �� − �𝑟

For initial condition, �𝑖 − �𝑟 = 𝑆 �� − �𝑟 = 𝑆 �

�� − �𝑖 = ∆� = � − 𝑆 � = � (1 − 𝑆 )

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

References

All content in this presentation is taken from:

Chow, V. T., Maidment, D. R., & Mays, L. W. (1988). Applied Hydrology. McGraw-Hill.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Green Ampt Equation
Computation of Soil Moisture Flux
Computation of Soil Moisture Flux
Calculate the soil moisture flux q (cm/day) between depths 0.8 m and 1.8 m in the soil at Deep Dean.
The data for total head at these depths are given at weekly time intervals in columns 2 and 3 of Table .
For this soil the relationship between hydraulic conductivity and soil suction head is 𝐾 =
250(−𝜓)−2.11 , where K is in centimeters per day and if/ is in centimeters.
Wetting Front
A small tube with a cross-sectional area of 40 cm2 is filled with soil and laid horizontally. The open
end of the tube is saturated, and after 15 minutes, 100 cm3 of water have infiltrated into the tube. If
the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil is 0.4 cm/h, determine how much infiltration would
have taken place in 30 minutes if the soil column had initially been placed upright with its upper
surface saturated.
Green-Ampt Equation
Green-Ampt Equation
Green-Ampt Equation
Green-Ampt Equation
Green-Ampt Equation
 CE 321 – Hydrology
Abstractions from Precipitation:
Infiltration Selva Balaji M
BITS Pilani Department of Civil Engineering
[Link]@[Link]
Pilani Campus

1
 Infiltration
The process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil. It replenishes the soil
moisture deficiency and the excess moves downward by the force of gravity called deep
seepage or percolation and builds up the ground water table

Source: [Link]
2
Moisture Zones

Source: [Link]

3
 Moisture Zones (Cont…)

Zone 1: A thin layer of saturated zone is created at the top

Zone 2: Beneath zone 1 , there is a transition zone
Zone 3: Transmission zone where the downward movement of water takes place. The moisture
content in this zone is above field capacity but below saturation
Zone 4 : The last zone is the wetting zone. The soil moisture in this zone will be at or near field
capacity and the moisture content decreases with the depth .

4
 Infiltration Process
• Infiltration process can be easily understood through a simple analogy.

• Consider a small container covered with wire gauge as in Fig. if the water poured into the
container a part of it will go into the container and a part over flows. Further, the container can
hold only a fixed quantity and when it is full no more flow into the container can take place.

Source: [Link]

5
An analogy for Infiltration

While this analogy is highly simplified , it underscores two important aspects

(i) Maximum rate at which the ground can absorb water - the Infiltration Capacity
(ii) The volume of water that the ground can hold- Field Capacity.

Since the infiltered water may contribute to the ground water discharge in addition to
increasing the soil moisture, the process can be schematically modelled

6
An Infiltration Model

Source: National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee [Link]

7
 Terms in Infiltration

Infiltration Capacity

The maximum rate at which the soil in any given condition is capable of absorbing
water is called its infiltration capacity (f). The actual infiltration 𝑙𝑎 when the intensity of
rainfall is i,

𝑙𝑎 = 𝑙, 𝑖𝑙 𝑖 ≥ 𝑙

𝑙𝑎 = 𝑖, 𝑖𝑙𝑖 < 𝑙

Infiltration (𝑙𝑎 ) often begins at a high rate (20 to 25 cm/hr) and decreases to a fairly
steady state rate as the rain continues, called the ultimate 𝑙𝑐 (= 1.25 to 2.0 cm/hr)

8
 Factors affecting Infiltration Capacity

➢Depth of surface detention and thickness of saturated layer

➢Soil moisture

➢Compaction

➢Surface cover conditions

➢Temperature

➢Characteristics of the soil (Texture, porosity and hydraulic conductivity)

➢Entrapped air in the pores

➢Quality of water

➢Freezing
9
Factors affecting Infiltration Capacity
Depth of Surface Detention and Thickness of Saturated Layer
➢ Infiltration is a process of combination of gravity and capillary forces

➢ Conceptual model

➢ 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑠�𝑎𝑛𝑐 �� 𝑙��𝑤 𝛼 𝐿

1
➢ 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑠�𝑎𝑛𝑐 �� 𝑙��𝑤 𝛼
𝐿+�

➢ When soil is dry and rain starts, L is small and higher infiltration

➢ With more rain, L increases and infiltration reduces as d becomes relatively smaller in
comparison to L.
10
Factors affecting Infiltration Capacity
Soil Moisture
➢When is soil is dry → both gravity and capillary forces in same direction (downwards)

➢As moisture increases, capillary forces diminishes, hence

Infiltration reduces

➢ If soil is already moist soil, capillary force is nil from start

➢ Also when soil gets wet, colloids swell and reduces the

size of voids

11
Factors affecting Infiltration Capacity
Compaction
➢Raindrops can easily compact clay soil with its impact and reduces infiltration

➢Negligible effect on sandy soils

➢When artificially compacted, initial infiltration is low and it reduces with impact

➢Overgrazed pastures, playgrounds, heavy vehicle movement areas have low infiltration

➢Also when clay is dry and rain hits, colloids clog the pores.

➢With ploughing and cultivation, burrowing animals and insects, decay of vegetation
matter have high infiltration, but compaction reduces infiltration

12
Factors affecting Infiltration Capacity
Surface Cover Conditions
➢Vegetative cover retards surface flow→ increases detentions→ Higher f

➢Temperature affects viscosity

➢Seasons affect infiltration as well

13
Characteristics of Soil
• The type of soil- sand, silt or clay, its texture. structure, permeability and underdrainage are
the important characteristics under this category.
• A loose, permeable sandy soil will have a larger infiltration capacity than the tight clayey soil
• A soil with good under drainage (ie) Facility to transmit the infiltrated water downward to a
ground water storage would obviously have a higher infiltration capacity
• The transmission capacity of the soil layers determines the over all infiltration rate
• Dry soil absorbs more water than whose pores are already filled
• Land use- Forest land soil having high infiltration rate than urban area

14
 Variation of Infiltration Capacity

Infiltration at capacity Rate (mm/hr)

Time from the start of infiltration

Source: Nation Insttute of Hydrology, Roorkee, [Link]

15
Infiltration Process

Source: [Link]

16
 Surface Entry
If soil pores are already filled with water, capacity of the soil to infiltrate will greatly
reduce.
Also, if the surface is covered by leaves or impervious materials like plastic, cement
then seepage of water will be blocked.

Source: [Link]

17
 Fluid Characteristics
• Water with high turbidity or suspended solids will face resistance during infiltration as the
pores of the soil may be blocked by the dissolved solids.
• Increase in temperature can influence viscosity of water which will again impact on the
movement of water through the surface.

18
Measurement of Infiltration
Infiltration characteristics of a soil at a given location can be estimated by
• Using flooding type infiltrometers
• Measurement of subsidence of free water in a large basin or pond
• Rainfall simulator
• Hydrograph analysis

Source: [Link]

19
 Comprehensive Questions

8. Compared to an area of Earth's surface with gentle

slopes, an area with steeper slopes most likely has

A) less infiltration and more runoff

B) less infiltration and less runoff

C) more infiltration and more runoff

D) more infiltration and less runoff

 Comprehensive Questions

Which graph best represents the relationship

between the surface slope of a dry, sandy soil and
the infiltration rate of rain?

Infiltration Rate

Infiltration Rate

Infiltration Rate
Infiltration Rate

Slope of Surface
Slope of Surface Slope of Surface Slope of Surface
 Comprehensive Questions

10. The flowchart below shows part of Earth's water cycle. The
question marks indicate a part of the flowchart that has been
deliberately left blank. Which process should be shown in
place of the question marks to best complete the flowchart?

A) condensation

B) déposition

C) évaporation

D) infiltration
 Flooding-type Infiltrometer
Flooding-type infiltrometers are experimental devices used to
obtain data relating to variation of infiltration capacity with time. Two
types of flooding type infiltrometers are in common use. They are (a) Tube-
type (or Simple) infiltrometer and (b) Double ring infiltrometer.

(a) Simple Infiltrometer (a) Double Ring Infiltrometer

23
 Double Ring Infiltrometer
A double ring infiltrometer is shown in Fig. The two rings
(22.5 to 90 cm diameter) are driven into the ground by a driving
plate and hammer, to penetrate into the soil surface to a depth of 15
cm.
Point gauges are fixed in the centre of the rings and in the
annular space between the two rings

24
 Double Ring Infiltrometer

Source: [Link]

Source: [Link]

25
 Source: [Link]

Source: [Link]

26
 Infiltrometer

Source: [Link]
27
 Double Ring Infiltrometer
Water is poured into the rings to maintain the desired depth and the water added
to maintain the original constant depth at regular time of up to a period of atleast 6 hours
is noted
The results are plotted as infiltration rate in cm/hr versus time in minutes
The purpose of the outer tube is to eliminate to some extent the edge effect of the
surrounding drier soil and to prevent the water within the inner space from spreading over
a larger area after penetrating below the bottom of the ring.

28
 Double Ring Infiltrometer

Infiltration rate (cm/hr)

Time (min)

Source: [Link]

29
 Horton’s equation
The potential infiltration capacity (f) at any time t is given by
Horton’s equation,
𝑙(�) = 𝑙𝑐 + 𝑙0 − 𝑙𝑐 −𝑘𝑡
𝑙0 − 𝑙𝑐

Infiltration rate (cm/hr)

𝑘=
𝐹𝑐
Cumulative infiltration depth till time t from start of
storm,
𝑡
𝐹(�) = න 𝑙 � ��
0

where , 𝑙0 = initial rate of infiltration capacity (L/T)

𝑙𝑐 = final constant rate of infiltration at saturation (L/T)
𝑘 = a constant depending primarily upon soil and Time (min)
vegetation Source: [Link]
e = base of the Napierian. logarithm
F= cumulative infiltration (L)
𝐹𝑐 = shaded area (L); � = time from beginning of the storm
30
 Horton’s Infiltration Curve

The infiltration takes place at

capacity rates only when the

Infiltration rate (cm/hr)

intensity of rainfall equals or exceeds
fp; i.e., f = fp when i ≥ fp but when i<
fp, f<fp and the actual infiltration
rates are approximately equal to the
rainfall rates.

Time (min)
Source: [Link]

31
Points To Be Remembered for solving Infiltration Numerical
Problems using Empirical formula

Horton’s equation
𝑙(�) = 𝑙𝑐 + 𝑙0 − 𝑙𝑐 −𝑘𝑡
𝑙0 − 𝑙𝑐
𝑘=
𝐹𝑐
Cumulative infiltration depth till time t from start of storm,
𝑡
𝐹(�) = න 𝑙 � ��
0

32
 Problem 13
For a given basin, the following are the infiltration capacity rates at various time intervals after
the beginning of the storm. Make a plot of the f-curve and establish an equation of the form
developed by Horton. Also determine the total rain and the excess rain (runoff).

Solution :
The precipitation and infiltration rates versus time are plotted as shown
in the fig, in the Horton’s equation, Horton’s constant
𝑙0 − 𝑙𝑐
𝑘=
𝐹𝑐

33
 Given Data
Precipitation rate Infiltration capacity
Time (min) After plotting the graph,
(cm/hr) (cm/hr)
Initial infiltration capacity,
𝑐𝑚
1 5 3.9 𝑙0 = 4.5 ℎ𝑟 ; (if we extend the graph to t=0)
2 5 3.4 𝑐𝑚
Final/ultimate infiltration capacity, 𝑙𝐶 = 1.2 ℎ𝑟 ;
3 5 3.1
4 5 2.7
5 5 2.5
6 7.5 2.3
8 7.5 2
10 7.5 1.8
12 7.5 1.54
14 7.5 1.43
16 2.5 1.36
18 2.5 1.31
20 2.5 1.28
22 2.5 1.25
24 2.5 1.23
26 2.5 1.22
28 2.5 1.2
30 2.5 1.2 34
 Intensity of rainfall i(cm/hr)
Infiltration rate f (cm/hr)

Time t(min)
Infiltration loss and net rain

35
 Solution

Shaded area 𝐹𝑐 = 8.25 𝑠𝑞. 𝑛𝑖�𝑠

36
 Solution (Cont…)

This is the equation for the infiltration capacity curve (f-curve) for the
basin, where f is in cm/hr and t in hr.
For example, for t= 10 min= 10/60 =1/6 hr

which is very near compared to the observed value of 1.8 cm/hr.

Total Rain

37
Solution (Cont…)

38
 Solution (Cont…)

Which compares with the value obtained earlier

Avg Infiltration loss

To determine the Horton’s constant by drawing a semi-log plot of t vs (f-

fc):
The Horton Equation is

Solving for t,

39
Solution (Cont…)

40
 Semi-log for Infiltration Constants

Time t, min to linear scale

Value of (f-fc) to log scale (cm/hr)

41
Solution (Cont…)

42
 Problem 14
For a small catchment, the infiltration rate at the beginning of the rain was
observed to be 90 mm/hr and decreased exponentially to a constant rate of
8 mm/hr after 2.5 hours. The total infiltration during 2.5 hr was 50 mm.
develop the Horton’s equation for the infiltration rate at any time t< 2.5 hr

43
 Problem 14
For a small catchment, the infiltration rate at the beginning of the rain was
observed to be 90 mm/hr and decreased exponentially to a constant rate of
8 mm/hr. after 2.5 hr. the total infiltration during 2.5 hr was 50 mm. develop
the Horton’s equation for the infiltration rate at any time t< 2.5 hr

Solution

44
 Problem 15

A 24 hour storm over a catchment of 1.8 km2 area and the total rainfall
observed was 10 cm. An infiltration capacity curve prepared had the
initial infiltration capacity of 1 cm/ hr and attained a constant value of 0.3
cm/hr after 15 hours of rainfall with a Hortons’s constant k= 5 /hr. An IMD
pan installed in the catchment indicated a decrease of 0.6 cm in the
water level (after allowing for rainfall) during 24 hours of its operation.
Other losses were found to be negligible. Determine the runoff from the
catchment. Assume a pan coefficient of 0.7.

45
Solution

46
 Problem 16
In a double Ring infiltrometer test, a constant depth of 100 mm was
restored at every time interval the level dropped as given below.
(i) Establish the infiltration equation of the form developed by Horton
(ii) Obtain the equation for cumulative infiltration of the form
(a) F= atn
(b) F= atn+b

47
Solution:

48
Solution (Cont…)

49
 Solution (Cont…)
(b) Plot on semi-log paper ‘t vs. log (f-fc )’ - Horton Infiltration Curve

Infiltration rate f (mm/hr)

Time t (min)

50
 Horton Infiltration Constant

Time (min)

(f-fc ) (mm/hr)

51
Solution (Cont…)

52
Solution (Cont…)

53
 Cumulative Infiltration Plot

Cumulative Infiltration F(mm)

Time t(min)

54
Solution (Cont…)

55
Solution (Cont…)

56
 Problem 17

Infiltration capacity data obtained in a flooding type infiltration test is

given below.

(a) For this data plot the curves of

(i) infiltration capacity verses time
(ii) Infiltration capacity verses cumulative infiltration
(iii) cumulative infiltration verses time
(b) Obtain a best values of parameters in Horton’s infiltration capacity
equation to represent this data

57
 Solution

• Incremental infiltration values and corresponding infiltration

intensities fp at various data observation times are calculated.
• Other data required for plotting the various plots are calculated
and tabulated.

58
Solution (Cont…)

59
 Solution (Cont…)
(a) Plots of fp vs time ,fp vs time, and fp vs Fp are shown in the fig. Best
fitting curve for plotted points are also shown in the fig

Cumulative Infiltration (cm/h) &

Infiltration Rate

Time since starts in hours

60
 Solution (Cont…)

fp =infiltration Capacity (cm/h)

Fp= cumulative depth of infiltration (cm)

61
 (b) By observation from table , fc= 3.24 cm/hr
Ln(fb-fc) is plotted against time t as shown in the fig.
The best fit line through the plotted points is drawn and its equation is
obtained

In (fp-fc)

Time t(h)

62
Solution (Cont…)

63
 Problem 18

The infiltration rate in a basin is represented by Horton’s equation as

Where fp is in cm/h and t is in hours. Assuming the infiltration to tae place
at capacity rates in a storm of 6 minutes duration, estimate the depth of
infiltration in
(i) the first 30 minutes and
(ii) (ii) the second 30 minutes of the storm

Solution:

64
Solution

65
Solution (Cont…)

66
 Problem 19
The infiltration capacity of soil in a small watershed was found to be 6 cm/h
before a rainfall event. It was found to be 1.2 cm/h at the end of 8 hours of
storm. If the total infiltration during the 8 hours period was 15 cm ,
estimate the value of the decay coefficient Kh in Horton’s infiltration
capacity equation

67
Solution (Cont…)

68
Infiltration Indices
Estimates of runoff volume from large areas are sometimes made by the
use of infiltration indices, which assume a constant average infiltration rate
during a storm, although in actual practice the infiltration will be varying
with time.
• The infiltration curve expresses the rate of infiltration (cm/hr) as a
function of time.
• The area between the rainfall graph and the infiltration curve
represents the rainfall excess, while the area under the infiltration
curve gives the loss of rainfall due to infiltration.
• The rate of loss is greatest in the early part of the storm, but it may
be rather uniform particularly with wet soil conditions from
antecedent rainfall.
The average value of infiltration is called infiltration
index.
69
Infiltration Indices
The two commonly used infiltration indices are the following:
• φ – index
• W – index
φ-index:
The φ-index is defined as that rate of rainfall above which
the rainfall volume equals the runoff volume.
The φ-index is relatively simple and all losses due to
infiltration, interception and depression storage (i.e., storage in
pits and ponds) are accounted for; hence,

70
𝑃 − 𝜑 � = 𝑅�

71
 Infiltration loss by ϕ index
Provided i > φ throughout the storm. The bar graph showing the
time distribution of rainfall, storm loss and rainfall excess (net rain or storm
runoff) is called a hyetograph, Fig . Thus, the φ-index divides the rainfall into
net rain and storm loss.

Rainfall Intensity i(cm/hr)

Time t(min)

72
 W – index

The W-index is the average infiltration rate during the time rainfall
intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity rate, i.e.,

where
P = total rainfall
Q = surface runoff
S = effective surface retention
tR = duration of storm during which i > fp
F = total infiltration

73
 Infiltration Indices
The W-index attempts to allow for depression storage, short rainless
periods during a storm and eliminates all rain periods during which i < fp.
Thus, the W-index is essentially equal to the φ-index minus the
average rate of retention by interception and depression storage, i.e., W <
φ.
Information on infiltration can be used to estimate the runoff
coefficient C in computing the surface runoff as a percentage of rainfall i.e.,

74
 Practical Use of ϕ Index
For practical use in the estimation of flood magnitudes due to critical storms a simplified
relationship for ϕ index is adopted.
As maximum flood peaks are invariability produced due to long storms and usually in wet
season, the initial losses are assumed to be negligibly small.
Further, only the soil type and rainfall are found to be critical in the estimation of ϕ index
for maximum flood producing storms.
On the basis of rainfall and runoff correlation, CWC has found the following relationships
for the estimation of ϕ index for flood producing storms and soil conditions prevalent in india.

75
Variation of Coefficient α

76
 Self Assessment Quiz- 3

Title: Infiltration

Link:
[Link]
p_hBJHWfh0VBKSlUBmpp9ww/viewform?usp=sf_link

Outcome:
Attempting the assessment questions aids to measure the basic
knowledge of the student on the Infiltration and the level of
understanding under the content of infiltration
 Points To Be Remembered for solving
Infiltration Indices Numerical Problems

78
 Problem 20
The rates of rainfall for the sucessive 30 min period of a 3-hour storm are:
1.6, 3.6, 5.0, 2.8, 2.2, 1.0 cm/hr. The corresponding surface runoff is
estimated to be 3.6 cm. Establish the φ-index. Also determine the W-index.

Intensity i (cm/hr)
Time t (min)

79
[Link] Time Rainfall intensity Rainfall (cm)
(min) (cm/hr)
1 30 1.6 =(1.6*30/60)= 0.8
2 60 3.6 =(3.6*30/60)= 1.8
3 90 5.0 2.5
4 12 2.8 1.4
5 150 2.2 1.1
6 180 1.0 0.5

TRAIL 1
Total rainfall = (0.8+1.8+2.5+1.4+1.1+0.5) = 8.1
Φ IN DEX = P-R/Te = 8.1-3.6 / 3 = 1.5 cm/hr
TRAIL 2
Total rainfall = (0.8+1.8+2.5+1.4+1.1) = 7.6
Φ IN DEX = P-R/Te = 7.6-3.6 / 2.5 = 1.6 cm/hr

80
 Solution (Cont…)

Intensity i (cm/hr)

Time t (min)

81
 Solution (Cont…)

To obtain the same runoff of 3.6 cm (shaded area), the φ-index can be
worked out as 1.82 cm/hr. Hence, it may be seen that a single determination of
φ-index is of limited value and many such determinations have to be made and
averaged, before the index is used.

The determination of φ-index for a catchment is a trial and error

procedure.

82
 Problem 21
A storm with 10 cm of Precipitation produced a direct runoff of 5.8 cm. the
duration of the rainfall was 16 hours and its time distribution is given below.
Estimate the ϕ index of the storm.

Solution:
Time interval = 2 hr
Intensity of rainfall is calculated by dividing the rainfall depth by
duration . Calculations are tabulated as below.

83
Solution

84
 Solution (Cont…)
By inspection of row 5
of table Mc = number of
Intensity of Rainfall (cm/hr) pulses having
That is

Thus Mc=6 ≠ M is
not correct. Try a
new value of M<8
in the next trail
Pulse number (pulse of 2 hr duration)

85
Solution (Cont…)

86
Solution (Cont…)

87
 Problem 22

Results of an infiltrometer test on soil are given below.

Determine Horton’s infiltration capacity equation for this soil.

Answer

88
 Problem 23

Results of an infiltrometer test on soil are given below. Determine the

best values of the parameters of Horton’s infiltration capacity equation
for this soil.

Answer

89
 Content Beyond the Syllabus

Title:
Measurement and Processing of Meteorological Data

Link:
[Link] (Chapter 5.2-5.5)

Outcome:
The knowledge on Measurement and Processing of Meteorological Data
aids to prepare the students to make use of the meteorological data for
the research on Hydrology and simulation of rainfall, runoff data
wherever it requires.

90
 Descriptive Questions
[Link] Questions

1 Use the rainfall data below to Estimate the φ index for the
watershed if the runoff depth was 6.6 in.

2 Recommend the Method for Measuring the Evaporation

3 Choose the method to estimate the evapotranspiration
4 Prioritize the methods to reduce the Evaporation
5 Justify the importance of infiltration indices

91
 Descriptive Questions

[Link] Questions

6 Rate the factors affecting the Infiltration

7 Rate the factors affecting the Evapotranspiration
8 A reservoir with a surface area of 250hectares had the
following average values of parameters during a week : water
temperature = 20⁰ C, relative humidity = 40% wind velocity at
1.0 m above ground = 16km/h. Estimate the average daily
evaporation from the lake and volume of water Evaporated
from the lake during that one week.

92
1. Explain how evaporation amount is measured using IS Class A pan?
List the factors affecting it
2. What is Evapotranspiration? Write its Measurement using Lysimeter
method with sketch
3. List the factors affecting Evapotranspiration. Write Blaney Criddle
Equation used to estimate ET.
4. Define Infiltration. With neat Sketch, Explain double ring
infiltrometer.
5. Write the Horton’s infiltration equation used to estimate infiltration
rate
6. For a storm of 3 hr duration the rainfall rates are as follows. If the
surface runoff is 3.4 cm, determine the ϕindex and W index.
Assume that initian ϕ index is mre than 1.4 cm/hr

93
1. Describe the method of determining the infiltration capacity using a
double ring infiltrometer.
2. Enlist the factors affecting Evapotranspiration
3. The total observed runoff volume during 6 hr- storm with auniform
intensity of 1.5cm/hr is 21.6 * 106 m3 . If the area of the basin is 350
km2 . Find the average infiltration rate for the basin.

94
1. Define Evaporation. With a Neat Sketch, Explain Measurement of
Evaporation using IS Class A pan
2. What is Infiltration? Explain the measurement of Infiltration using
Double Ring Infiltrometer (With neat Sketch)
3. The rates of Rainfall for the successive 30 min period of a 3 hour
storm are 1.6,3.6,5.0,2.8,2.2,1.0 cm/hr. The corresponding
surface runoff is estimated to be 3.6 cm. Establish the ϕ index
and W index.

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 GATE 2018

1. The infiltration rate f in a basin under ponding condition is given

by where, f is in mm/h and t is time in hour. Total depth of infiltration (in
mm, up to one decimal place) during the last 20 minutes of a storm of 30
minutes duration is ______

Answer : 11.0 to 12.0

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 GATE 2017

2. The infiltration capacity of a soil follows the Horton's exponetial

model, During an experiment the inital infiltration
capacity was observed to be 200 mm/h. After a long time the infiltration
capacity was reduced to 25 mm/h. If the infiltration capacity after 1 hour
was 90 mm/h. the value of the decay rate constant, k (in h-1 up to two
decimal places) is ____________.

Answer : 0.98 to 1.00

97
3. The rate of rainfall for successive 10 minute periods of a 60
minute duration storm, are shown in the below figure. If the
value of φindex is 3 cm/hour, the runoff will be

(A) 2 cm
(B) 3 cm
(C) 4 cm
(D) 5 cm
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 GATE 2012

4. The ratio of actual evapo-transpiration to potential evapo-

transpiration is in the range

A) 0.0-0.4
B) 0.6-0.9
C) 0.0- 1.0
D) 1.0-2.0

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 GATE 2012
5.

100