Problem Solving in Engineering Hydrology Faris Gorashi Faris & Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid

Chapter One
Meteorological data (Humidity, temperature,
radiation and wind)
1.1 Humidity
Maximum value of water vapor that can exit in any one space is a function of temperature, and is
practically independent of the coexistence of other gases. When maximum amount of water
vapor (for a given temperature) is contained in a given space, the space is said to be saturated.
The pressure exerted by a vapor in a saturated space is called “saturation vapor pressure. “

1.2 Relative humidity

Relative humidity is the percentage of actual vapor pressure to saturation vapor pressure. It is the
ratio of amount of moisture in a given space to the amount a space could contain if saturated.

1.3 Dew point

Dew point denotes the temperature at which space becomes saturated when air is cooled under
constant pressure and with constant water vapor pressure. Also dew point is the temperature
having a saturation vapor pressure, es equal to the existing vapor pressure, e.

Example 1.1
An air mass is at a temperature of 20o C with relative humidity of 75%. Using the following
equation h = 100 x e find: saturation vapor pressure, actual vapor pressure, the deficit
es
in saturation and dew point. ([Link]., DU, 2011)
Solution
1) Data given: T = 20o C, h = 75 %
2) Find from tables (see annex) the value of saturated vapor pressure at a temperature of 20o
C,
Value of saturated vapor pressure es = 17.53 mm Hg
3) Substitute data in humidity equation:
h = 100 x e
es
Where:
h = Relative humidity, %, which describes the ability of air to absorb additional moisture
at a given temperature.
e = Actual vapor pressure
es = Saturation vapor pressure. (Numerical value of es are to be found from tables).

h = 100 * e/es, find real vapor pressure:

75 = 100 × e ÷ 17.53
Real vapor pressure e = 13.1475 mm Hg.

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Problem Solving in Engineering Hydrology Faris Gorashi Faris & Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid

4) Find saturation deficit as follows:

Saturation deficit: e - es = 17.53 - 13.1475 = 4.3825 mm Hg.
5) Find dew point as the temperature at which the values of es and e are equal.
Since: es = 13.1475 mm Hg, then one can find the temperature, and then the dew point
can be found from tables and for the value of es = 13.1475, dew point = 15.4 o C.

1.4 Water Budget

Hydrological cycle is a very complex series of processes. Nonetheless, under certain well-
defined conditions, the response of a watershed to rainfall, infiltration, and evaporation can be
calculated if simple assumptions can be made.

Example 1.2
For a given month, a 121 ha lake has 0.43 m3/s of inflow, 0.37 m3/s of outflow, and the total
storage increase of 1.97 ha-m. A USGS gauge next to the lake recorded a total of 3.3 cm
precipitation for the lake for the month. Assuming that infiltration loss is insignificant for the
lake, determine the evaporation loss, in cm over the lake for the month.
Solution
Given, P = 3.3 cm, I = 0.43 m3/s, Q = 0.37 m3/s, S = 1.97 ha-m, Area, A = 121 ha
Solving the water balance for Inflow, I and Outflow, O in a lake gives, for evaporation, E ;
 m3   30 day  24 hour  3600 s 
Inflow, I =  0.43 s  1 month  1 month  1 day  1 hour 
    
 10 000 m2 
(121 ha) 
 1 ha 
Inflow, I = 0.92 m = 92 cm
 m3   30 day  24 hour  3600 s 
Outflow, Q =  0.37 s  1 month  1 month  1 day  1 hour 
   10 000m2   
(121 ha) 
 1 ha 
Outflow, Q = 0.79 m = 79 cm
Additional data :
Direct Precipitation, P = 3.3 cm
1.97 ha.m
Storage, S = = 0.0163 m = 1.63cm
121 ha
From water budget equation,
P − R − G − E − T = S
In this case,
I + P – Q – E = ∆S
Therefore,
Evaporation, E:
E = I + P – Q - ∆S
E = 92 + 3.3 – 79 – 1.63
E = 14.67 cm

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Problem Solving in Engineering Hydrology Faris Gorashi Faris & Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid

EXAMPLE 1.3
At a particular time, the storage in a river reach is 60 x 103 m3. At that time, the inflow into the
reach is 10 m3/s and the outflow is 16 m3/s. after two hours, the inflow and the outflow are 18
m3/s and 20 m3/s respectively. Determine the change in storage during two hours period and the
storage volume after two hours.

Solution
Given, I1 = 10 m3/s
I2 = 18 m3/s
O1 = 16 m3/s
O2 = 20 m3/s
S1 = 60 x 103 m3
∆t = 2 hours x 60 min x 60 s = 7200 s

1) Change in storage, ∆S during two hours :

I - O = ∆S
I +I O + O2 S
( 1 2) − ( 1 ) =
2 2 t
10 + 18 16 + 20 S
( ) − ( ) =
2 2 t
Therefore,
S m3
= −4
t s
m3
  7200 s
S = −4
s
S = − 28 800 m3

2) Storage Volume after two hours, S2 :

∆S = S2 - S1

Rearrange,
S2 = ∆S + S1
S2 = - 28 800 + 60 x 103
S2 = 31 200 m3

1.5 Wind
Wind denotes air flowing nearly horizontally. Winds are mainly the result of horizontal
differences in pressure. In absence of other factors tending to influence wind, it should be
expected that its direction would be from areas of high pressure towards areas of low pressure
and that its speed would vary with the pressure gradient.

Example 1.4
At a given site, a long-term wind speed record is available for measurements at heights of 10m
and 15m above the ground. For certain calculations of evaporation the speed at 2m is required,

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Problem Solving in Engineering Hydrology Faris Gorashi Faris & Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid

so it is desired to extend the long-term record to the 2m level. For one set of data the speeds at
10 and 15 m were 7.68 and 8.11 m/s respectively ([Link]., DU, 2013).
i. What is the value of the exponent relating the two speeds and elevations?
ii. What speed would you predict for the 2 m level? a
u =  z 
uo  zo 
Solution
• Data given: z1 = 10 m, az2 = 15, u10 = 7.68 m/s, u15 = 8.22 m/s. Required: a, u2
 
• Use equation u = z to determine the constant a:
 
Where:
uo  zo 
u = Wind speed in the region at height zo m /s
uo = Wind speed at least height (at anemometer) zo . m/s
zo = Height of anemometer (minimum height), m
a = An exponent varying with surface roughness and stability of the atmosphere, (usually
ranging between 0.1 to 0.6 in the surface boundary layer).
a
7.68 =  10 
8.11  15 

Or: a*Log (10/15) = Log (7.68/8.11) which yields a = 0.134

• Use equation u z 
a
7.68 10 0.134
=  10 
10 =  
u 2
u2  z2  2  

Which yields: u2 = 6.19 m/s

1.6 Theoretical Exercises

1) Write briefly about three of the following: ([Link]., UAE, 1989).
a) The hydrologic cycle and the principal influences that prevent its phases from repeating
themselves in an identical fashion from year to year.
b) Factors that influence evaporation. Explain briefly how each factor affects the rate and
time of occurrence of evaporation.
c) Types of precipitation. On what category would you place rain rainfall at El-Ain.
d) Infiltration indexes and their importance.
2) Show how the following relationship can be used to find the wind speed from the height
above the ground. ([Link]., DU, 2011)
a
u = z 
 
uo  zo 

3) State Buys Ballot law ([Link]., DU, 2013).

Solution
“Low-pressure zone in the northern part of the globe lies north of the viewer who stands
giving his back to the wind, and it is located on his right side in the southern part of the
globe, as a result of the impact of the earth's rotation”.
4) It is necessary to specify height above sea level when doing any measurement of wind due
to surface friction factors and water surfaces through which wind is blowing. The

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Problem Solving in Engineering Hydrology Faris Gorashi Faris & Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid

relationship between wind speed and height can be found from the following relationship.
Define the shown terms. ([Link]., DU, 2012)
a
u  z 
= 
u z 
o o
 

5) Define and explain: Dew point, Ballton’s law, Orographic precipitation and an isohyetal
map. ([Link]., UAE, 1989, [Link]., DU, 2012)).
Solution
• Is the temperature at which es = e.
• If an observer stands with his back to the wind, the lower pressure is on his left in
the northern hemisphere and his right in the southern hemisphere.
• Results from mechanical lifting over mountain barriers. Most is deposited on the
windward slopes.
• Map showing lines of equal rainfall amount.
6) Define: relative humidity, dew point and wind ([Link]., DU, 2012).
Solution
Relative humidity is the percentage of actual vapor pressure to saturation vapor pressure or
is the ratio of amount of moisture in a given space to the amount a space could contain if
saturated.
Dew point: Denotes the temperature at which space becomes saturated when air is cooled
under constant pressure and with constant water vapor pressure. Also it is the temperature
having a saturation vapor pressure, es equal to the existing vapor pressure, e.
Wind: denotes air flowing nearly horizontally.
7) What is hydrology? What are the benefits of this science in practical life?
8) Indicate general factors affecting climate, and methods of measurement. Illustrate your
answer with appropriate sketches.
9) Mention advantages of measuring temperature.
10) What is meant by “areas of low and high pressure”? How are they detected?.
11) Write a detailed report on each of the following: moisture, relative humidity, water vapor
pressure, and dew point.
12) Outline marked differences between methods of measuring humidity.
13) What is the benefit of measuring solar radiation?
14) Explain ways of cloud formation.
15) Explain water vapor condensation in air. What are the benefits of the process?
16) What factors affect evaporation?
17) Write a detailed report on instruments for measuring evaporation.
18) How does both surface water and groundwater affect evaporation?
19) Mention different types of precipitation and their presence in practice.
20) How precipitation is measured? Compare its measurement devices.
21) What are elements of a hydrological Meteorological station?

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Problem Solving in Engineering Hydrology Faris Gorashi Faris & Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid

1.7 Problem solving in meteorological data

Pressure
1) A hill is of height of 4000 meters and of rising dry air temperature of 14.8 degrees Celsius.
Condensation occurs at a height of 2000 meters. Calculate the pressure and saturation drop.
Find air temperature when it reaches the top of the mountain and its temperature when it
reaches top of hill and its temperature when it returns to the bottom.

Vapor pressure
2) An air mass is at a temperature of 18o C with relative humidity of 80 %. Using the following
equation h = 100 x e find: ([Link]., DU, 2012)
i. Saturation ve as por pressure.
ii. Actual vapor pressure in mm Hg, m bar, and Pa
iii. The deficit in saturation
iv. Dew point.
Solution
1) data: T = 18o C, h = 80 %
2) Find from tables the value of saturated vapor pressure at a temperature of 18o C,
value of saturated vapor pressure es = 15.46 mm Hg
3) Substitute data in h = 100 * e / es find real vapor pressure:
80 = 100 × e ÷ 15.46
Actual or real vapor pressure e = 12.386 mm Hg = 12.386*1.33 = 16.45 m bar =
16.45*102 = 1.6*103 N/m2 = 1.6 kPa
4) Find saturation deficit as follows:
Saturation deficit: e - es = 15.46 - 12.386 = 3.07 mm Hg.
5) Find dew point as the temperature at which the values of es and e are equal.
Since: es = 12.386 mm Hg, then one can find the temperature, and then the dew point
can be found from tables and for the value of es = 12.386 dew point = 13.2 o C.
3) An air mass is at a temperature of 24.5 ºC with relative humidity of 58%. Determine: ([Link].,
UAE, 1989).
▪ Saturation vapour pressure.
▪ Saturation deficit.
▪ Actual vapour pressure (in mbar, mmHg, and Pa).
▪ Dew point.
Solution
For a temperature of 24.5 ºC from table or figure
i] Saturation pressure es = 23.05 mmHg
Relative humidity, h =
ii]

Saturation deficit = es – e = 23.05 – 13.37 = 9.68 mmHg

iii] Actual vapour pressure = 13.37 mmHg = 13.37×1.33 = 1778 mbar
= 1778×102 = 1.78 kN/m2 = 1.78 kPa.
iv] Dew point is the temperature at which e = es
 es = 13.37 mmHg and from table:

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Problem Solving in Engineering Hydrology Faris Gorashi Faris & Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid

Dew point = 15.7 ºC

4) A mass of air is at a temperature of 22C and relative humidity of 81%. Find: saturated
vapor pressure, real vapor pressure, saturation deficit, and dew point (Ans. 19.82, 16.05,
3.77mmHg, 18.6C).
5) An air mass is at a temperature of 28o C with relative humidity of 70%. Find:
a) Saturation vapor pressure
b) Actual vapor pressure in mbar and mm Hg
c) Saturation deficit
d) Dew point
e) Wet-bulb temperature.
6) To a mass of air at a temperature of 20o C and relative humidity of 80%, find saturated vapor
pressure, real vapor pressure, deficit in saturation, and dew point. What is the difference in
your answer if the temperature changed to 25o C and relative humidity to 75%.
7) An air mass is at a temperature of 20o C with relative humidity of 75%. Using the following
equation h =1f0in0dx: e
i. Saturation vapor pressuree s
ii. Actual vapor pressure
iii. The deficit in saturation
iv. Dew point
(ans. 22.53 mm Hg, 16.8975 mm Hg, 5.63 mm Hg, 19.4 o C).

Wind
8) Anemometers at 2.5 m and 40 m on a tower record wind speeds of 2 and 5 m/s respectively.
Compute wind speeds at 5 and 30 m. ([Link]., DU, 2012)
Solution
b)

9) At a given site, a long-term wind speed record is available for measurements at heights of 5
m and 10 m above the ground. For certain calculations of evaporation the speed at 2 m is
required, so it is desired to extend the long-term record to the 2 m level. For one set of data
the speeds at 5 and 10 m were 5.51 and 6.11 m/s respectively ([Link]., DU, 2012).
i. What is the value of the exponent relating the two speeds and elevations?
ii. What wind speed would you predict for the 2 m level?
Solution
1. Data given: z1 = 5 m, z2 = 10, u5 = 5.51 m/s, u10 = 6.11 m/s r.
2. Required: a, u2

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Problem Solving in Engineering Hydrology Faris Gorashi Faris & Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid

3. Use equation to determine the constant a:

a a
u5  z5  5.51 =  5 
u10 = 10 6.11 10
z   
Or a Log 10/15 = Log 5.51/6.11 which yields a = 0.149
4. Use equation u a
z  0.149
5
= 5 5.51 =  5 
u
2  2 u2 2
Which yields u2 = 4.8 m/s
10) At a given site, a long-term wind speed record is available for measurements at heights of 5
m and 10 m above the ground. For certain calculations of evaporation the speed at 2 m is
required, so it is desired to extend the long-term record to the 2 m level. For one set of data
the speeds at 5 and 10 m were 5.11 and 5.61 m/s respectively. ([Link]., DU, 2011)
iii. What is the value of the exponent relating the two speeds and elevations?
iv. What speed would you predict for the 2 m level?
Solution
1. Data given: z1 = 5 m, z2 = 10, u10 = 5.11 m/s, u15 = 5.61 m/s r.
2. Required: a, u2
3. Use equation to determine the constant a:
U10/u15 = (5/10)a = 5.11/5.61
Or a Log 5/10 = Log 5.11/5.61 which yields a = 0.134677
4. Use equation u10/u2 = 5.11/u2 = (5/2)0.134667,
Which yields U2 = 4.51 m/s
11) Anemometers at 2m and 50m on a tower record wind speeds of 2 and 5 m/s respectively.
Compute wind speeds at 5 and 30 m. ([Link]., UAE, 1989).
Solution

12) Anemometers at 2.5 m and 40 m on a tower record wind speeds of 2 and 5 m/s respectively.
Compute wind speeds at 5 and 30 m. (ans. 2.51, 4.54 m/s).
13) Anemometers at 2m and 50m on a tower record wind speeds of 2 and 5 m/s respectively.
Compute wind speeds at 5 and 30 m. (ans. 2.6, 4.6 m/s).
14) Theoretical Wind speed is measured for two heights 3 and 4 meters and the following values
were found 2.5 and 3 m/s, respectively. Find wind speed for a height of two meters.
15) Measured wind speed in a monitoring station for two heights 1 and 2 meters has shown the
values of 1.6 and 2.2 m/s, respectively. Find wind speed at a height of two meters and ten
meters.

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Problem Solving in Engineering Hydrology Faris Gorashi Faris & Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid

Water budget
16) At a water elevation of 6391 ft, Kenyir Lake has a volume of 2, 939, 000 ac-ft, and a surface
area, A of 48, 100 ac. Annual inputs to the lake include 8.0 in. of direct precipitation, runoff
from gauged streams of 150, 000 ac-ft per year, and ungauged runoff and groundwater
inflow of 37, 000 ac-ft per year. Evaporation is 45 inch. per year.
Make a water budget showing inputs, in ac-ft per year.
(*Note : 1 ac = 43, 560 ft2, 1 cm = 0.394 in, 1 in = 0.083 ft)

Solution
Given, Water Elevation, EL = 6391 ft
Volume of lake, V = 2, 939, 000 ac-ft
Area, A = 48, 100 ac

1) Annual input, I to the lake :

a) Direct precipitation, P = 8 in / year
 0.083 ft 
= (8 in)   (48, 100 ac)
 1 in 
= 31, 938.40 ac-ft / year

b) Runoff from gauged streams = 150, 000 ac-ft / year

c) Runoff from ungauged = 37, 000 ac-ft / year

Therefore,
Total annual input, I = 31, 938.40 + 150, 000 + 37, 000
= 218, 938.40 ac-ft / year.

2) Outflow, O :
a) Evaporation, E = 45 in / year
 0.083 ft 
E = (45 in)   (48, 100 ac)
 1 in 
E = 179, 653.50 ac-ft / year

3) Water Budget :
∆S = I - O
∆ S = 218, 938.40 - 179, 653.50
∆ S = 39, 284.90 ac-ft / year (positive)

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