1 Introduction

Sunflower oil is oil product that produce from seeds of Helianthus annuus L., it is
one of the important oil products in the world due to it has high oxidative stability
and nutritional values. This oil mainly compose of triglycerides that are high in
unsaturated fatty acids. its main fatty acids is linoleic and oleic acid, and other
major component of sunflower oil include tocopherol(vitamin E), palmitic acid and
stearic acid, and phytosterols, lipophilic and waxes , and pigments(Gotor and
Rhazi, 2016). Presence of different types of sunflower oil based depends on the
concentration of fatty acids in sunflower oil , like high-oleic, mid-oleic, and high-
stearic-high-oleic sunflower oil(Nakonechna et al., 2024). The sunflower plant first
domesticated and grew by natives of central and north America, during the 16th
century it introduced to Europe by Spanish. Sunflower used as ornamental plants
until in 18th century that sunflower extraction industry developed. At this time, the
production and consumption of sunflower oil were especially popular in Russia,
which led to rapid increase in cultivated area. During the 19th century and the
beginning of 20th century, cultivation of sunflower extended all over the world,
and today it’s the 4th largest vegetable oil(Salas et al., 2015). The technologies for
modern extraction and purification and characterization undergone very important
improvement that cause increase process efficiency, quality and sustainability
compared to older mechanical and solvent based approach. Green techniques give
better protection for sensitive bioactive compounds during extraction and comply
with current environment standard(Gotor and Rhazi, 2016). This review aims to
valuable information regarding most of the new advanced techniques to extract and
purify, and characterize sunflower oil according to previous studies, giving
emphasis on possibly the most environmentally friendly ways for obtain
sustainable, high purity and high quality sunflower oil.
2 Distribution and supply chain analysis of sunflower oil
2.1 Supply chain architecture
Supply chain of sunflower oil is complex chain under the aim of optimizing
process between agricultural production and its final consumption(Kousar et al.,
2024). The sourcing and buying start with cultivation of the seed, which contain
high oil and protein, and then shipped to the extraction plants for produce crude
sunflower oil. Wholesale vs. Retail Channels separate between bulk sales as
industrial product such as biodiesel and cosmetic, and refined oils as supermarket
product(Nurrochmat et al., 2024). The modern direct consumer approaches are
using increasingly digital platforms and streamlined warehouses to in able the
execution of high volume product on time(Kousar et al., 2024).
2.2 Logistic and transformation
Effective logistic try to keep the cost low as possible and level of services high as
possible in different transport methods. The bulk oil transport is usually done via
tanker within country, however the international transport is based on the global
ports and special purpose containers such as ISO tanks. The stability of the shelf
life and stop of oxidation and stability of product in event of transport to customers
is ensured by temperature control. Geographic Reach is complex trade flows,
which involves large exporters to large import markets(Kousar et al., 2024).
2.3 Standard packaging and storage
Bulk vs. consumer package depends on end use, where retail food product need
food grade materials to preserve the poly unsaturated fatty acids(Nurrochmat et al.,
2024). In Warehouse Protocols require storage in cool and dry, dark place to
eliminate light induced rancidity. The stringent food safety and traceability
standards is explanation of importantly of the Inventory Management basis. The
supplier are more concerned with concept of first in and first out because it
guarantees the freshness of products and adherence to these requirements(Kousar
et al., 2024).
2.4 Quality Compliance and Regulatory
The hazard analysis critical point is form of safety certification, is necessary to
management of biological and chemical hazard in international food chains. It
must be a one of a requirement labeled with batch traceability codes and nutritional
facts that must be clear and enable it to be recollected. The import and export
regulations have effect in the trade such as customs duties and phytosanitary
certificates, which are quite important. In certain markets such as India, certain
tariffs tend to determine the imports of oil in crude and refined states(Kousar et al.,
2024).
2.5 Market Challenges and Risks
The industry has experience extreme price volatility due to globally shifts of the
production and prices of competitor vegetable oils. Geopolitical conflicts are also
known to cause supply chain distribution, especially in major exporting center such
as black sea region. The environmental impact of the land hungry annual crops,
such as sunflowers, has pushed towards the need to practice more sustainable
methods. Competitiveness of the market is measured by the capacity to respond to
climate change and lack of the resources(Nurrochmat et al., 2024).

3 Historical background and world production of sunflower oil

The sunflower was domesticated by native Americans more than 4000 years ago
and belongs to the family of Asteraceae. Sunflower plant was planted as early as
4225B.C. that indicated by Archeological records, the seeds were used as food and
medicine, and also used during the ceremonies(Radanović et al., 2018). In 1510,
The plant has been cultivated in Europe by Spanish explorers, and it has been
planted there over a period of two centuries, but was used primarily as decoration
in gardens. In the 18th centuries, the shift to a large scale industrial oil crop of the
sunflower started in Russia, it cause to spread to worldwide market as the 4th
largest source of vegetable oil in the world(Salas et al., 2015). Since the 1970s,
Mutagenesis has created newer different types of sunflower oil, such as high oleic
type, which has better oxidative stability. This allows for different uses from
durable frying oils to healthy tables oil(Salas et al., 2015, Radanović et al., 2018).
In 2025, total production of sunflower oil in the world was estimated to be 20015
thousand million metric tons, and it is estimated that Russia can contribute the
highest quantity of 6732 thousand metric tons in the global supply the second
biggest producer was Ukraine that supposed to produce 4515 thousand metric tons.
European union is approximated to generate 3212 thousand metric tons and
Argentina generate 2104 thousand metric tons. Finally, Turkey will also generate
805 thousand metric tons and that will be five most productive area(United States
Department of Agriculture, 2026).
4 Methods
4.1 classical methods
4.1.1 classical extraction methods of sunflower oil
The classical extraction of sunflower oil are used in traditional industries and
laboratory process, used to separate liquid from sunflower seeds. These methods
use physical force or chemical solvent to separate crude oil from the protein matrix
and solid fiber of the seeds(Nadeem et al., 2015).
[Link] Mechanical pressing
Mechanical pressing is the oldest method used for sunflower oil extraction by
using physical pressure(Bakhshabadi et al., 2025). Its process based on using of
heat, under cold and hot pressing. In cold pressing due to low temperature and non-
chemical use, it preserve natural flavours and bioactive compounds but in this
process the oil yield is low approximately 21.4%. in hot pressing the oil yield is
high approximately 75-98%, but it has affect on heat sensitive components and
oxidative stability of sunflower oil(Nadeem et al., 2015).
[Link] solvent extraction(Soxhlet)
Solvent extraction is one of the extraction process of oil from seeds that used in
industries and Soxhlet method used in laboratories which is a continuous washing
of the material of ground seed, in the most cases organic solvent such as n-hexane
or petroleum ether is used(Nadeem et al., 2015). The oil yield of This technique is
better than mechanical process, approximately about 42.5%, and the waste oil that
remain in meal less than 1%(Nadeem et al., 2015, Bakhshabadi et al., 2025). the
method is labor-intensive, and it is slightly efficient, and can be harmful to
environment and safety due to toxicity and flammability of these solvent that
used(Bakhshabadi et al., 2025).
[Link] pre-press solvent extraction
A hybrid pre-press solvent extraction is commonly used for high oil seeds like
sunflower to maximize industry production. It is occurs in two step process,
mechanical pressing used to eliminate the seed oil content to 16-20%, and solvent
extraction used to extract the rest of lipids. Finally in this process less than 0.5%
oil remains in the meal. Although it give the maximum recovery oil, it requires a
lot of industrial facilities and power usage to further recover of
solvents(Bakhshabadi et al., 2025).
4.1.2 classical purification methods of sunflower oil
Classical refining of sunflower oil is an industrial process that is used many steps
to remove impurities that affect on sensory property and stability of the oil to
obtain a clear and neutral, and stable product. These traditional methods used in
where need large production, but cause bad effect on bioactive components such as
tocopherols(Beshtica et al., 2020).
[Link] degumming
It is the first classical purification that used to eliminate phospholipids and
mucilaginous gums that may be during storage leads to development of off-
flavours and discolouration of oil. In the water degumming, added a small amount
of water to oil to moisturize phospholipids and it be insoluble and separate from
mixture oil. Using phosphoric acid to transform non hydratable phospholipids in to
removal form to insure reduce amount of phospholipid in the oil(Beshtica et al.,
2020).
[Link] neutralization
It is most important classical process which eliminate presence of free fatty
acids(FFA), that cause the oil be acidic and decrease oxidative stability. In this
case, the base solution such as NaOH, it reacts with oil to form soapstock, which is
then centrifuged to react with FFAs(Beshtica et al., 2020). Other tan the reducing
acidity, neutralization helps to elimination remaining phospholipids and coloring
substances, and it can cause slight decrease neutral oil and other beneficial
nutrients such as tocopherols(Gotor and Rhazi, 2016).
[Link] bleaching
This purification process used to remove color pigments such as chlorophyl and
carotenoids and remaining soap and oxidation products by using adsorbent
substances, mainly bleaching soil or activated clay, and the oil subjected to vacuum
and controlled temperature to obtain desired visual clarity oil(Beshtica et al.,
2020). And also used for eliminate trace metals and peroxide compounds that
greatly increase the oxidate stability and shelf life of the refined sunflower
oil(Gotor and Rhazi, 2016).
[Link] winterization
It is a purification step that used for eliminate waxes that cause to oil be cloudy in
low temperatures. It done through gradual cooling to achieve the crystal of high
melting point waxes, and then filtrated to separate waxes. The quality of oil is
crucial because validate the presence of transparency and clearness of the product,
even at refrigerated temperatures(Beshtica et al., 2020).
[Link] deodorization
It is the last significant step of classical purification that use high vacuum and high
temperature about more than 200°C, and steam distillation to remove volatile
odoriferous compounds during the purification process. This process is developing
the neutral teste and odor, and also used to elimination of FFAs and secondary
oxidation products(Beshtica et al., 2020, Gotor and Rhazi, 2016). Due to the
temperature conditions, loss process that is frequently involved in conserving
tocopherols, it show why it necessary to control it and ensure that sensory quality
does not affect preservation of nutritional value(Gotor and Rhazi, 2016).
4.1.3 classical characterization methods of sunflower oil
By the classical method, standard procedures are used to characterize sunflower oil
that used to determine quality and stability, and nutritional quality of the product.
These standard methods used to assess critical physical and chemical
characteristics to discover the oil is suitable for dietary and industrial(Ogireddy et
al., 2025).
[Link] refractive index
It used to determine how fast the medium of light is in oil relative to that of a
vacuum, which is a physical measurement to determine purity of the oil in terms of
free acid chain length and level of unsaturation(Ogireddy et al., 2025).
[Link] smoke point
It is the thermal parameter that determine temperature when triglycerides
decompose into glycerol and free fatty acids, the lower smoke point means the
higher oxidative instable product(Nakonechna et al., 2024).
[Link] acid value
Acid value show the presence of free fatty acids, which indicate how much oil
degraded due to hydrolysis or rancidity, higher acid value is indicator of lower
quality and poor freshness oil(Ogireddy et al., 2025).
[Link] peroxide value
One of the significant signs of the of oxidative state and the quality of the
technique of oil treatment, low peroxide value indicate the oil fresh and safe to
use(Nakonechna et al., 2024).
[Link] relative density
Its is the physical value that is obtained by dividing density of an oil sample by
density of water at that temperature(30°C), to know purity of oil(Ogireddy et al.,
2025).
[Link] iodine value
Iodine value is measured by taking the number of grams of iodine that is taken by
100 gram of oil, in the terms of the content of linoleic and oleic acids , it help to
know chemical structure of the oil(Ogireddy et al., 2025).
[Link] saponification value
It is measure average the molecular weights of fatty acid that present in the
oil(Ogireddy et al., 2025)
[Link] induction period(oxidative stability)
It is measure how long the oil can resist rapid oxidation when exposed to heat and
air, low oxidative stability changes generally in average of 2.6 hours of induction,
the high oleic sunflower oils have much higher stability at 11.8 hours(Nakonechna
et al., 2024).
4.2 modern methods
4.2.1 advanced extraction methods
Advanced extraction methods are used to lowering limitations of the classical
methods, such as lack of selectivity and high level of solvent usage, and
inactivation of bioactive components and the impact on the environment(Jaski et
al., 2022). Available researches show various methods for increasing the quality
and composition of sunflower oil.
[Link] supercritical CO2 extraction(SFE-CO2)
In this method used CO2 in its supercritical point (31°C,74 bar) to extract
sunflower oil and its components(Đorđević and Ranđelović, 2025). Seed matrix
and phytosterole and tocopherol diffused in CO2 due to CO2 have property of gas-
like diffusion and liquid-like solubility capacity(Hernandez et al., 2025). SFE-CO2
is not toxic and not solvent remain in the oil unlike traditional solvent extraction.
Selectivity of method can improved by polar solvents such as ethanol, however it
needs high pressure equipment and high controlling the parameters(Đorđević and
Ranđelović, 2025).
[Link] Ultrasound assisted extraction(UAE)
This method uses ultrasonic frequencies above 20kHz and produce cavitation
acoustically which leads to form microjets and osmotic stress damage of plant cell
walls(Jamal and Kareem, 2022, Rosa et al., 2025). This process speed up mass
transfer kinetics, and shorter extraction time and less amount of solvent is used
compared to conventional methods(Rosa et al., 2025, Moradi et al., 2018). UAE is
flexible with successful separation of nonpolar triglycerides and polar bioactive
substances(phenolic, tocopherols), particularly with using of green solvents such as
ethanol(Rosa et al., 2025, Jamal and Kareem, 2022).
[Link] microwave assisted extraction(MAE)
This method used microwave(500 W for 12 min) and heating to extract oil from
sunflower seeds, high heating rate helps the transfer of triacylglycerols,
tocopherols, and aroma-active compounds, which has been preferred to heat. This
method being very effective and having shorter duration time, and yield and
quality of the oil are strictly depends on the irradiation temperature and exposure
time and solvent solid ratios(Broto and Subagyo, 2024).
[Link] enzymatic aqueous extraction(EAE)
This method is a green technology that uses water and specific
biocatalysts(proteases and cellulases) to break cell wall matrix and lipid protein
complexes(De Aquino et al., 2022). EAE maintains heat sensitive fatty acids other
phenols without flammable organic solvents at mild temperature and pH. It
preserves the nutritional value and activity of the oil, depends on the activity of
enzyme different yields of oil are obtained(De Aquino et al., 2022, de Aquino et
al., 2019).

[Link] pulsed electric field assisted extraction(PEFAE)

This method uses ultra-short and high-voltage electric pulses to electro-pore cell
membrane and leave permanent micropores. Non-thermal perturbation elevates
diffusion coefficient, which increase oil recovery about 2.3% without thermal
damaging phytochemicals. The method preserves the quality of fatty acid profile
and nutritional composition due to absence oxidative damage of food, typical of
traditional thermal treatments(Shorstkii et al., 2020).
[Link] pressurized liquid extraction(PLE)
This method uses high temperature about 60°C to 120°C and high pressure to
ensure that the liquid phase at the temperature above the boiling point in the
atmosphere(Jaski et al., 2022). The conditions of this method decrease viscosity of
the solvent and increase diffusivity, which allow recovering all the oil more than
93.93%. PEL is useful when it comes to isolate tocopherols(83.16 mg/100 gm oil),
and the co-extraction of natural additives to increase oxidative stability of
sunflower oil(Jaski et al., 2022, Vicentini‐Polette et al., 2024).
[Link] hydrostatic extraction
Hydrostatic pressing is a mechanical solvent free technique that uses water as a
pressurizing agent at room temperature and pressure above 50000 psi. the
sunflower seed matrix release its oil under high hydrostatic force with a yield of
45.17%at 30000 psi. it is a good process to extract nonpolar lipids and bioactive
sterols, and resulted oil has physical qualities such as density and viscosity that are
no worse than the oil that produced in industry without chemical additives(dos
Santos and Pereira, 2024).