Front page: Introduction

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 1 of 20 Chapters
 IRRIGATION DESIGN MANUAL
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Table of Contents

Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1.1

1. Purpose of the manual .................................................................................................................. 1.1
2. Background on irrigation in the Republic of South Africa ................................................................ 1.1
3. Rainfall and evaporation patterns ................................................................................................. 1.2
4. Water as a resource ...................................................................................................................... 1.3
5. Importance of irrigated agriculture ................................................................................................ 1.5
6. Sectoral water consumption .......................................................................................................... 1.6
7. Scope and potential of irrigation in South Africa ............................................................................ 1.7
8. Water legislation......................................................................................................................... 1.10
9. References .................................................................................................................................. 1.10

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1.1 Introduction

Chapter 1 Introduction
1. Purpose of the manual
The purpose of the manual is to serve as a reference guide for producers for the planning, choice installation,
management and maintenance of an irrigation system. In most cases, the chapters contain an introductory
portion from the existing Irrigation Design Manual. This basic information is of importance for both the irrigation
consultant who has to design and plan the system, as well as for the producer who has to operate the system. It
should help with multi-disciplinary cooperation when a system is planned. In most cases, the chapters contain a
portion, which informs on the basic practical aspects regarding installation, management and maintenance of an
irrigation system. If specific specialist information is required, it is recommended that a professional in the
specific area of expertise be consulted.

2. Background on irrigation in the Republic of South Africa

Large areas of the Republic of South Africa are subject to hot and dry climatic conditions, high evaporation and
a low and intermittent rainfall, where optimal crop production is not possible without the addition of plant-
available water by means of irrigation. The predominant hot and sunny climate is, however, advantageous for
plant growth and a large variety of crops are successfully cultivated under irrigation in areas where suitable soils
and sufficient water sources occur. Irrigation therefor contributes substantially to agricultural production for the
local as well as for the export market.

Irrigation has been applied in the Cape Province as far back as 1797. The first large irrigation scheme was however
only established near Clanwilliam in 1912 and up until the 1930's, various schemes were developed with state
aid by irrigation boards. During the depression of the thirties and forties, the state developed various large
irrigation schemes for socio-economic reasons. Since the 1950's, the emphasis fell on the economic development
of disadvantaged areas in the former homelands and the state also developed various irrigation schemes in those
areas. A large number of state water schemes were erected countrywide at the same time, for the storage and/or
transfer of water between catchment areas, in order to ensure water supplies to irrigators and other users.

Private irrigation development, however, took place parallel to the development of state and irrigation board
schemes. Approximately 44% of the land currently under irrigation was developed by private enterprise, against
26% on state water schemes, which includes 4% small-scale farmer schemes and 30% on irrigation board
schemes.

Up to the1930's, flood irrigation, with gravitational flow of water, was primarily applied. Since the 1940's,
irrigation under pressure was started and the use of sprinkler irrigation was on the increase. The use of micro
systems in the RSA became established in the 1970's and the use of self-driven kinetic systems became popular
later during the same decade.

1.1
 Irrigation Design Manual 1.2

3. Rainfall and evaporation patterns

The average annual rainfall and evaporation in the RSA is shown in Figures 1.1 and 1.2 (DWAF, 1986).

Figure 1.1: Average annual rainfall (Source:South Africa tours and travel, 2019)

Figure 1.2: Average annual evaporation (Source: Frederick et al, 2010)

Less than 20% of the surface of the RSA of 1,05 million square kilometre has a semi-humid climate with an
average rainfall of more than 750 mm/annum and an average evaporation of less than 1 400 mm/annum.
Forestry applied generally in these mainly mountainous regions, although, to a lesser extent, irrigation and
dryland cultivation of crops apply. Regions with a rainfall of more than 500 mm/annum and an evaporation of
less than 1 800 mm/annum, include the central highveld, eastern coastal region and the winter rainfall region.
Irrigation of a large variety of crops, as well as dryland cultivation of mainly maize, sugar cane and wheat
generally apply in these regions. The rest of the country largely has a warm and semi-dry to dry climate, with an
average rainfall, which provides in less than 50% of the evapo-transpiration needs of crops for optimal growth
and production. Irrigation is therefor essential for crop cultivation in these regions.

1.2
1.3 Introduction

4. Water as a resource
South Africa is classified as water scarce country Reinders, 2010) with an estimated average annual rainfall of
495 mm (Annadale et al., 2011). An estimated 21% of South Africa is considered arid, receiving less than 200
mm/year rainfall, while 44% is regarded as semi-arid as it receives between 200 and 500 mm/year. According to
Aquastat statistics (FAO, 2016)), 65% of South Africa does not receive enough rainfall to support dryland
agriculture. In addition, most (approx. 80%) rainfall occurs within a five-month rainfall season (Reinders, 2010).
Therefore, only a fraction the surface area of South Africa has access to rainfall hence suitable for crop
production. An estimated 13% (approx.. 14 million hectares) worth of soils are fertile are fertile and can support
dryland crop production (Annadale et al., 2011; World Wide for Nature, 2018). However, most of this area is
considered marginal. Only 3% of the land surface of South Africa is considered moderate to high-potential land
for irrigated agriculture (World Wide for Nature, 2018). According to FAO (2016), the estimated area in South
Africa with irrigation potential in 1992 was 1.5 million ha. This is similar to the 1996 NDA estimation of potential
irrigable land of 1.58 million ha (Backeberg, 2003).

A number of assessments since 1990 documented either the actual area under irrigated crops or the registered
area under irrigation, using various approaches to derive the estimates. According to these estimates, the area
under irrigation ranged between 1.21 and 1.58 million ha and the area registered for irrigation use between
1.44 and 1.68 million ha.

Given the uncertainty about the area currently irrigated, the estimated amount of water used by irrigated
agriculture is also unclear. It is estimated that irrigated agriculture uses between 51% (Backeberg et al. 1996)
and 63% (Water Accounts for South Africa 2000, in Reinders (2010)) of SA's water resources. According to
Statistics South Africa (2010), 62% of water is being used by irrigation, 23% for meeting urban requirements
and the remaining 15% is shared by other users (rural users, mining and bulk industrial, power generation and
afforestation).

Table 1.1 Water use by irrigated agriculture, expressed nationally and per province for the 2014/15 study
period (Van Niekerk et al., 2018)
Irrigated ET
Irrigated ET
Cultivated Irrigated Area (% of ET/ha (% of
Province Total Area (ha) Area (% of (Mil
Area (ha) a Area (ha) c Cultivated (m 3
/ha) tot.
Total Area) m3/yr)
Area) Use)
Eastern Cape 16 896 600 1 355 239 152 866 0.90 11.3 1070 7000 10.5
Free State 12 982 520 3 796 784 129 077 0.99 3.4 832 6446 8.1
Gauteng 1 817 831 405 056 20 115 1.11 5.0 154 7656 1.5
KwaZulu-Natal 9 436 132 1 428 847 177 341 1.88 12.4 1518 8560 14.9
Mpumalanga 7 649 469 1 306 403 125 595 1.64 9.6 1245 9913 12.2
Northern Cape 37 288 940 272 079 144 579 0.39 53.1 1135 7850 11.1
Limpopo 12 575 390 1 251 682 218 302 1.74 17.4 1930 8841 18.9
North West 10 488 170 2 183 704 97 211 0.93 4.5 752 7736 7.4
Western Cape 12 946 220 1 947 345 269 476 2.08 13.8 1583 5874 15.5
Total / Mean* 122 081 272 13 947 139 1 334 562 1.30* 14.5* 10 221 7753* 100.0

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 Irrigation Design Manual 1.4
Table 1.2 Water use by crop type, for the 2014/15 study period (Van Niekerk et al., 2018)
Standard
Rainfall # samples / Max ET Median ET Mean ET Area
Crop type Group deviation
season pixels (mm/yr) (mm/yr) (mm/yr) (ha)
(mm/yr)
All 72 969 1 385 615 618 113 1 771 083
Maize Summer Irrigated 3 689 1 385 737 764 187 76 246
Rainfed 69 280 1 378 611 610 102 1 694 837
All 1 558 1 088 600 591 109 40 907
Wheat Summer Irrigated 217 1 088 658 655 136 4 038
Rainfed 1 341 1 069 597 581 100 36 870
All 3 335 1 290 590 590 93 50 934
Other small
Summer Irrigated 184 1 129 660 663 189 4 050
grains
Rainfed 3 151 1 290 589 586 82 46 884
All 30 085 1 380 637 646 100 545 822
Vegetables
Summer Irrigated 1 445 1 380 771 789 180 18 843
Rainfed 28 640 1 354 634 639 89 526 979
Grapes– All 5 726 1 368 782 788 261 12 381
Winter
Table Irrigated 5 638 1 368 786 791 260 12 192
Grapes– All 41 315 1 399 571 595 190 106 022
Wine Winter Irrigated 39 937 1 399 574 598 190 103 010
Rainfed 1 378 1 126 500 528 172 3 012
Grapes–
Summer Irrigated 145 1 315 793 754 254 403
Other
Fruit–Citrus Winter Irrigated 5 708 1 400 678 696 221 11 731
Summer Irrigated 164 1 396 911 925 206 403
Fruit–Stone Winter Irrigated 11 145 1 399 632 655 256 21 918
Fruit–Pome Winter Irrigated 15 702 1 398 833 828 237 31 322
Fruit–Other Winter Irrigated 1 425 1 331 553 572 210 3 002
All 11 656 1 386 508 510 102 290 047
Oil seeds Summer Irrigated 589 1 386 619 628 173 8 257
Rainfed 11 067 941 504 504 93 281 790
Lucerne Summer Irrigated 1 001 1 396 825 831 251 17 875
Other All 199 861 1 397 539 537 123 2 157 027
pastures & Summer Irrigated 7 213 1 394 612 630 175 42 749
forages Rainfed 192 648 1 397 536 534 119 2 114 279
All 208 095 1 400 756 744 155 279 414
Sugarcane Summer Irrigated 13 031 1 400 906 914 196 55 929
Rainfed 195 064 1 399 750 732 145 223 485

Irrigation therefore contributes substantially to agricultural production for the local as well as for the export
market.

1.4
1.5 Introduction

5. Importance of irrigated agriculture

Despite the fact that irrigated agriculture uses a large proportion of the available water resources, the
importance of this sector for the economy and food security is undisputed. Irrigation supports approximately
25 to 30% of national agricultural production; it is estimated that up to 90% of irrigated areas are planted with
high-value crops (e.g. potatoes, vegetables, grapes and other fruit and tobacco), of which 25 to 40% are
industrial crops such as sugarcane and cotton (Backeberg, 2005).

According to the Greyling (2015), there has been a clear shift from low value basic food crops to high-value
export crops since 2008. This resulted in SA becoming a net importer of food in terms of volume. Although
negative in terms of national food security (national production meeting demands), it is generates foreign
revenue. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) estimated that the area under irrigated maize
production in SA has more than doubled over the past 12 years (2000 to 2013) – from 100 000 ha in 2000/01
to 240 500 ha in 2011/12 (G-Feed 2013). A record maize yield was expected for the 2013/14 production season,
with the USDAFAS-Washington estimating that the maize produced under irrigation would be nearly 2.5 million
tons, or 20% of the total maize production in SA (estimated at 12.5 million tons) (G-Feed 2013).

Overall, the direct contribution of agriculture to SA’s GDP is relatively low, estimated to be between 4 and 5.3%
(Backeberg et al. 1996; NDA 1996). A more recent estimate for 2008 indicates a contribution of 2.5% (WWF for
Nature, 2018). However, it is estimated that the indirect contribution of agriculture to the GDP is much higher
at between 14% (WWF for Nature 2018) and 30% (Backeberg 2005).

The irrigation systems currently in general use (See Figure 1.3) in the RSA, are differentiated as follows:
 flood or gravity irrigation systems by which water that flows under gravitation is applied to the
farmlands. This includes basin, border, furrow, short furrow and contour irrigation;
 mobile irrigation systems, which move over the farmland under its own power while it irrigates. This
includes centre pivot, linear, travelling gun, systems;
 static irrigation systems:
- sprinkler irrigation systems, which are moved mechanically or manually from one position to
another, in order to irrigate the entire farmland surface. This includes quick couple, dragline,
hop-along, big gun, side-roll and irrigating boom systems;
- micro irrigation systems, which are permanent after installation and not normally moved. This
includes micro and drip systems.

Figure 1.3: Classification of irrigation systems (Reinders, 2019)

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 Irrigation Design Manual 1.6
The utilisation tendencies of the different irrigation methods are shown graphically in Figure 1.4

Figure 1.4: Projection of utilisation tendencies of different irrigation methods (Reinders, 2019)
6. Sectoral water consumption
The projected sectoral water consumption and requirements from 2020 until 2040 and the estimated water
requirements until 2010 are given in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3: Projected future sectoral water consumption and requirements in the RSA (DWS, 2018)
2020 2025 2030 2040
Consumer
million million million million
sector % % % %
m³/y m³/y m³/y m³/y
Municipal
(industries,
commerce, 4 900 30,0 5 400 31,8 5 800 33,0 6 600 35,5
urban and rural
domestic)
Agriculture
(irrigation and
9 500 58,2 9 600 56,5 9 700 55,2 9 800 52,7
livestock
watering)
Mining and bulk
921 5,7 968 5,8 1 017 5,8 1 124 6,0
indusrial
Strategic/Power
390 2,4 410 2,4 430 2,4 450 2,4
generation
International
178 1,1 178 1,0 178 1,0 178 1,1
obligations
Afforestation 432 2,6 433 2,5 434 2,6 434 2,3
TOTAL 16 321 100,0 16 989 100,0 17 559 100,0 18 586 100,0

Irrigation is however by far the largest single water user. It is estimated that water resources in the RSA have
already been developed to close to their full potential and that further development of those sources will be
extremely expensive.

1.6
1.7 Introduction

7. Scope and potential of irrigation in South Africa

The calculated surface areas of irrigated farmland in the RSA, as well as calculations of lands with irrigation
potential and the availability of water for further irrigation development, is shown in Table 1.4 per province.
Table 1.4: Potential area for expansion per province (Irrigation Strategy, 2015)
Province Scheme/Area Potential Expansion Comments
(ha)
Eastern Cape Upper Orange 4 000 Orange River re-
River Catchment Planning Study
(ORRS) by DWS
(DWS 2014)

Umzimvubu Dam 2354 According to

Foxwood Dam 1 250 Mzimvubu and
Foxwood Water
Projects Feasibility
Studies
Free State Upper Orange 3 000 Orange River re-
River Catchment Planning Study
(ORRS) by DWS
(DWS 1990)
Gauteng No possible expansion
Kwa-Zulu Natal Makhathini 10 000 Makhathini Master
Irrigation Scheme Plan
Limpopo Over allocation of water resources (DWSA
reports)
Mpumalanga 3 000 Information
supplied by official
from Department
of Agriculture in
Mpumalanga.
Northern Cape Upper Orange 5 000 (Indications Orange River
River Catchment are that most of Planning Study
these have already (ORRS) by DWS
been allocated) (DWS 1990)
North West Taung Irrigation 1 259 Budget Planning
Scheme Report by Endecon
Ubuntu (Pty) Ltd
2011
Western Cape 5000 Availability of the
hectares will
depend on the
increased capacity
with the raising of
Clan William Dam
wall.
Total 34 863 ha

1.7
 Irrigation Design Manual 1.8
The calculated contribution of irrigation to commercial agricultural production in the RSA is shown in Table 1.5.
Besides products that are marketed formally, crop cultivation under irrigation in remote regions, contributes
substantially to food security in such areas.

Table 1.5: Calculated contribution of irrigation to commercial crop production in the RSA (Food Statistics, 1990)
Area under irrigation Production
Crop x 1 000 ha % total area X 1 000 ha % of national production
cultivated
Maize 110 3 660 10
Wheat 170 12 740 30
Other small grain 52 3 200 6
Potatoes 39 70 1200 80
Vegetables 108 66 1330 90
Grapes 103 90 1300 90
Citrus 35 85 1100 90
Other fruit 95 80 1200 90
Oil seeds 54 10 108 15
Sugar cane 60 15 4000 25
Cotton 18 17 17 42
Tobacco 12 85 20 90
Lucerne 203 70 1600 80
Other grazing crops 104 15 800 25

Crops which are mainly cultivated under irrigation, include potatoes, sugar cane, vegetables, grapes, citrus,
deciduous fruit, tobacco and lucerne, of which deciduous fruit, citrus and table grapes are the main export
products. Irrigation also contributes substantially to the production of wheat, sugar cane, cotton and other
grazing crops.. The contribution of irrigation to production for local as well as export markets also gives an
indication of the economic importance of irrigation.

An example of annual water requirements by Water Management Area and sector (Figure 1.5) in 2000 is shown
in Table 1.6. The water requirements in 2000 were estimated to be spread as follows between the major uses
at a standardized 98 % assurance of water supply: irrigation 62 %; domestic 27 %; mining, industrial and power
8 %; afforestation 3 % (Backerberg, 2010).

Figure 1.5 Water Management Areas

1.8
1.9 Introduction
Table 1.6: Total water requirements in Mm3/a per Water Management Area and sector
(Overview of the SA Water Sector)
Water management Irrigation Urban Rural Mining and Power Affore- Total require-
area bulk generation station ments
Mm3/a Mm3/a Mm3/a industrial Mm3/a Mm3/a Mm3/a
Limpopo 238 34 28 14 7 1 322

Luvuvhu/Letaba 248 10 31 1 0 43 333

Crocodile West and 445 547 37 127 28 0 1 184

Marico
Olifants 557 88 44 94 181 3 967

Inkomati 593 63 26 24 0 138 844

Usutu to Mhlatuze 432 50 40 91 0 104 717

Thukela 204 52 31 46 1 0 334

Upper Vaal 114 635 43 173 80 0 1 045

Middel Vaal 159 93 32 85 0 0 369

Lower Vaal 525 68 44 6 0 0 643

Mvoti to Umzimkulu 207 408 44 74 0 65 798

Mzimvubu to 109 99 39 0 0 46 374

Keiskamma
Upper Orange 780 126 60 2 0 0 968

Lower Orange 977 25 17 9 0 0 1 028

Fish to Tsitsikamma 763 112 16 0 0 7 898

Gouritz 254 52 11 6 0 14 337

Olifants/Doring 356 7 6 3 0 1 373

Breede 577 39 11 0 0 6 633

Berg 301 389 14 0 0 0 702

TOTAL FOR 7 920 2 897 574 755 297 428 12 871

COUNTRY 62% 23% 4% 6% 2% 3% Mm3/a

1.9
 Irrigation Design Manual 1.10

8. Water legislation
The apportioning and use of water is controlled by legislation. The National Water Act (Act no. 36 of 1998) is
based on, amongst others, the following principles:
 All water, wherever it may occur in the water cycle, is a communal source, which should be subject to
national control and should enjoy equal status before the law.
 Ownership of water should not exist, but only the right to usage.
 The occurrence of a water source relative to soil must not by itself establish priorities for the
preferential use thereof.
 The development, apportioning and management of water sources must take into consideration public
interest, sustainability, equality and efficient use and done in such a way that it reflects the value of
water for the community. Provision must also be made for basic domestic requirements and the needs
of the environment and international obligations.
 The National Water Act makes provision for the establishment of catchment area control bodies (CMAs
– Catchment Management Agencies) and Water User’s Associations (WUA) to manage water sources.
The CMAs will act as organizations that manage, develop and protect of water within their individual
water management regions. For an example, organization that was formerly an Irrigation Board, will
be known under the Water Act as a Water User’s Association. Changes to the structure and operation
of the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry will also have to be made to make provision for the
new role that CMAs will play.
9. References
1. Backeberg GR 2005. Water institutional reforms in South Africa. Water Policy 7: 107 - 123
2. Backeberg GR, Bembridge TJ, Bennie ATP, Groenwald JA, Hammes PS, Pullen RA & Thompson H 1996. Policy
proposal for irrigated agriculture in South Africa. Water Research Commission.
3. Committee on Food and Feeding Strategy, 1990. The nature and potential of the Natural Resources of the
RSA and the Determining Influence thereof on Future Agricultural Development, Department of Agricultural
Development, Pretoria, RSA.
4. Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2018. Irrigation Strategy for South Africa, 2015
5. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, 1986. Management of the Water Sources of South Africa, Pretoria,
RSA.
6. Department of Water and Sanitation, 2018. Water Security and Water Governance in South Africa; in National
Water and Sanitation Master Plan, 2018
7. Governing Board Induction Manual. Overview of the SA Water Sector.
8. Food statistics 1990. Contribution of irrigation to commercial crop production in the RSA
9. Greyling J 2005. A look at the contribution of the agricultural sector to the South African economy (online).
[Link]
economy
[Link] 1996. Report on the role of agriculture in the South African economy. National Department of Agriculture
[Link], F.B. 2019. Personel communication. Pretoria South Africa.
[Link], W.J., Burger, J.H., Heyns, P.J., Kleinhans, E.P.J., Koegelenberg, F.H., Lategan, M.T., Mulder, D. J., Smal,
H.S., Stimie, C.M., van der Merwe, F.P.J., and Viljoen, P.D. 1996. Irrigation Design Manual. ARC-Institute for
Agricultural Engineering
[Link] der Watt, H.v.H and Theo H van Rooyen, 1990. A Glossary of Soil Science. The Soil Science Association of
South Africa.
[Link] Niekerk A, Jarmain C, Goudriaan R, Muller SJ, Ferreira F, Munch Z, Pauw T, Stephenson G, Gibson L, 2018.
An Earth Observation Approach Towards MAPPING Irrigated Area and Quantifying Water Use By Irrigated
Crops in South Africa. WAter Research Commission Report, Report No. TT 745/17.
[Link] Wide Fund for Nature 2018. Agricluture: Facts and Trends, South Africa (online):
[Link]

1.10