Department of Civil Engineering

______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

CHAPTER 3: BRIDGE LOADING AND DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS

3.1 DEAD LOADS (DC = STRUCTURAL COMPONENT; DW = WEARING SURFACE; EV =
VERTICAL EARTHFILL)
Permanent loads consist of dead loads and earth loads. Dead load shall include the weight
of all components of the structure, appurtenances and utilities attached thereto, earth
cover, wearing surface, future overlays, and planned widening.
In the absence of more precise information, the densities, specified in Table 3.1, shall be
used for dead loads.

MATERIAL DENSITY (kg/m3) Force effect (kN/m3)

Bituminous Wearing Surfaces 2250 22.5
Cast Iron 7200 72
Cinder (volcanic stone) Filling 960 9.6
Compacted Sand, silt, or Clay 1925 19.3
Concrete Normal 2400 24
Loose Sand, Silt, or Gravel 1800 18
Soft Clay 1700 17
Rolled Gravel or Ballast 2250 22.5
Steel 7850 79
Stone Masonry 2725 27.3
Wood Hard 960 9.6
Soft 800 8
Water Fresh 1000 10
Table 3.1 Densities and Force Effects of Different Materials
The table above provides traditionally used values of densities.

3.2 VEHICULAR LIVE LOAD

Number of Design Lanes
Generally, the number of design lanes should be determined by taking the integer part of
the ratio w/3000, where w is the clear roadway width in mm between curbs and/or
barriers.
In cases where the traffic lanes are less than 3.0 m wide, the number of design lanes shall
be equal to the number of traffic lanes, and the width of the design lane shall be taken as
the width of the traffic lane.

Multiple Presence of Live Load

The provisions of this subchapter shall not be applied to the fatigue limit state for which
one design truck is used, regardless of the number of design lanes.
The extreme live load force effect shall be determined by considering each possible
combination of number of loaded lanes multiplied by the corresponding factor specified
in Table 3.2. For the purpose of determining the number of lanes when the loading
condition includes the pedestrian loads specified later in this chapter combined with one

_____________________________________________________________________________ 1
Fundamentals of bridge design
Department of Civil Engineering
______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

or more lanes of the vehicular live load, the pedestrian loads shall be taken to be one
loaded lane.
The m-factors specified below shall not be applied in conjunction with approximate load
distribution factors specified in Chapter 13: Approximate Methods of Analysis of ERA
design manual, except where the lever rule is used or where special requirements for
exterior beams in beam-slab bridges is applied.

Number of Loaded Lanes 1 2 3 >3

Multiple Presence Factors “m” 1.20 1.0 0.85 0.65

Table 3.2 Multiple Presence Factors "m"

The multiple presence factors have been included in the approximate equations for
distribution factors in Chapter 13: Approximate Methods of Analysis, both for single and
multiple loaded lanes. The equations are based on evaluation of several combinations of
loaded lanes with their appropriate multiple presence factors and are intended to account
for the worst case scenario. Where use of the lever rule is specified the Designer must
determine the number and location of vehicles and lanes, and, therefore, must include the
multiple presence. Stated another way, if a sketch is required to determine load
distribution, the Designer is responsible for including multiple presence factors and
selecting the worst design case. The factor 1.20 from Table 3-2 has already been included
in the approximate equations and should be removed for the purpose of fatigue
investigations.

If a component supported a sidewalk and one lane, it would be investigated for the
vehicular live load alone with m = 1.20, and for the pedestrian loads combined with the
vehicular live load with m = 1.0. If a component supported a sidewalk and two lanes of
vehicular live load, it would be investigated for:
 One lane of vehicular live load, m = 1.20;
 The greater of the more significant lane of vehicular live load and the pedestrian loads
or two lanes of vehicular live load, m = 1.0 applied to the governing case; and
 Two lanes of vehicular live load and the pedestrian loads, m = 0.85.

The multiple presence factor of 1.20 for a single lane does not apply to the pedestrian
loads. Therefore, the case of the pedestrian loads without the vehicular live load is a
subset of the second bulleted item.

The multiple presence factors in Table 3.2 were developed based on an ADTT (Average
Daily Truck Traffic) of 5000 trucks in one direction. The force effect resulting from the
appropriate number of lanes shall be reduced for sites with lower ADTT as follows:

 If 100  ADTT  1000; 95 % of the specified force effect shall be used; and
 If ADTT < 100; 90 % of the specified force effect shall be used.

This adjustment is based on the reduced probability of attaining the design event during a
75-year design life with reduced truck volume.
_____________________________________________________________________________ 2
Fundamentals of bridge design
Department of Civil Engineering
______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

Design Truck
The weights and spacing of axles and wheels for the design truck shall be as specified in
Figure 2-1. A dynamic load allowance shall be considered as specified in the following
subchapter on Vehicular Dynamic Load Allowance.

Plan of Design Truck Load

showing tire contact areas

4.3 m

4.3 –9.0 m

1.8 m
3.000 mm
FIGURE 3-1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DESIGN TRUCK
Except as specified in following subchapters on the application of Design Vehicular Live
Loads and Fatigue Loads, the spacing between the two 145 kN axles shall be varied
between 4.3 and 9.0 m to produce extreme force effects.

Design Tandem
The design tandem used for Strategic Bridges shall consist of a pair of 110 kN axles
spaced 1.2 m apart. The transverse spacing of wheels shall be taken as 1.8 m. A dynamic
load allowance shall be considered as specified in a following subchapter. The spacing
and loading is illustrated in Figure 3-2

110 kN

1.2 m

110 kN

1.8 m

Figure 3-2 Design Tandem Load

_____________________________________________________________________________ 3
Fundamentals of bridge design
Department of Civil Engineering
______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

Design Lane Load

The design lane load shall consist of a load of 9.3 kN/m, uniformly distributed in the
longitudinal direction. Transversely, the design lane load shall be assumed to be
uniformly distributed over a 3.0-m width. The force effects from the design lane load
shall not be subject to a dynamic load allowance.
3.3 PEDESTRIAN LOADS
A pedestrian load of 4.0 kPa (kN/m2) shall be applied to all sidewalks wider than 0.6 m
and considered simultaneously with the vehicular design live load.
See the provisions of above subchapter Multiple Presence of Live Load for applying the
pedestrian loads in combination with the vehicular live load. Usually the 4 kN/m2 load
will allow for small cars to pass. To avoid accidents for bridges wider than 2.4 m,
provision shall be made for an additional axle load.
Where sidewalks, pedestrian, and/or bicycle bridges are intended to be used by
maintenance and/or other incidental vehicles, these loads shall be considered in the
design. If unknown, at least one movable axle load of 70 kN acting together with the
pedestrian load shall be applied. The dynamic load allowance need not be considered for
these vehicles.
In half-through-trusses of steel, the compressed top chord of a simple span truss shall be
designed to resist a lateral force of not less than 4.0 kN/m length, considered as a
permanent load for the Strength I Load Combination and factored accordingly.

3.4 DYNAMIC LOAD ALLOWANCE (IM = VEHICULAR DYNAMIC LOAD

ALLOWANCE)
Unless otherwise permitted in subchapters Buried Components and Wood Components
below, the static effects of the design truck or tandem, other than centrifugal and braking
forces, shall be increased by the percentage specified in Table 2.3 for dynamic load
allowance.

The factor to be applied to the static load shall be taken as: (1 + IM/100).
The dynamic load allowance shall not be applied to pedestrian loads or to the design lane
load.

Component IM
Deck Joints – All Limit States 75%
All Other Components
 Fatigue and Fracture Limit State 15%
 All Other Limit States 33%

Table 2.3 Dynamic Load Allowance, IM

Dynamic load allowance need not be applied to:

 Retaining walls not subject to vertical reactions from the superstructure, and
 Foundation components that are entirely below ground level.

_____________________________________________________________________________ 4
Fundamentals of bridge design
Department of Civil Engineering
______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

The dynamic load allowance shall be reduced for components, other than joints, if
justified by sufficient evidence, but in no case shall the dynamic load allowance used in
design be less than 50% of IM in the table above.

The dynamic load allowance (IM) in Table 3.3 is an increment to be applied to the static
wheel load to account for wheel load impact from moving vehicles.

Dynamic effects due to moving vehicles shall be attributed to two sources:

 Hammering effect is the dynamic response of the wheel assembly to riding surface
discontinuities, such as deck joints, cracks, potholes, and delamination’s, and
 Dynamic response of the bridge as a whole to passing vehicles, which shall be due to
long undulations in the roadway pavement, such as those caused by settlement of fill,
or to resonant excitation as a result of similar frequencies of vibration between bridge
and vehicle. The frequency of vibration of any bridge should not exceed 3 Hz.

BURIED COMPONENTS
The dynamic load allowance for culverts and other buried structures, in %, shall be taken
as:

IM = 33 (1.0 - 4.l*10-4 DE) > 0%

Where:
DE = the minimum depth of earth cover above the structure (mm)

WOOD COMPONENTS
Wood structures are known to experience reduced dynamic wheel load effects due to
internal friction between the components and the damping characteristics of wood.
For wood bridges and wood components of bridges, the dynamic load allowance values
specified in table of dynamic load allowance shall be reduced to 70  of the values
specified therein for IM.

3.5 TIRE CONTACT AREA

The tire contact area of a wheel consisting of one or two tires shall be assumed to be a
single rectangle, whose width is 500 mm and whose length () in mm shall be taken as:

 = 2.28 x 10-3  (1 + IM/100) P (3.1)

where:  = load factor for the limit state under consideration.
IM = dynamic load allowance percent
P = 72.5 kN for the design truck and 55 kN for the design tandem

The tire pressure shall be assumed to be uniformly distributed over the contact area. The
tire pressure shall be assumed to be distributed as follows:
 On continuous surfaces, uniformly over the specified contact area, and
 On interrupted surfaces, uniformly over the actual contact area within the footprint
with the pressure increased in the ratio of the specified to actual contact areas.

_____________________________________________________________________________ 5
Fundamentals of bridge design
Department of Civil Engineering
______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

However, for all concrete decks including composite decks the length 200 mm shall be
used in Equation 3.1.

3.6 APPLICATION OF DESIGN VEHICULAR LIVE LOADS

The effects of an axle sequence and the lane load are superimposed in order to obtain
extreme values.

Unless otherwise specified, the extreme force effect shall be taken as the larger of the
following:
 The effect of the design tandem combined with the effect of the design lane load, or
 The effect of one design truck with the variable axle spacing specified in the
subchapter Multiple Presence of Live Load above, combined with the effect of the
design lane load, and
 For both negative and positive moment between points of contraflexure under a
uniform load on all spans, and reaction at interior piers only, 90% of the effect of two
design trucks spaced a minimum of 15.0 m between the lead axle of one truck and the
rear axle of the other truck, combined with 90% of the effect of the design lane load.
The distance between the 145 kN axles of each truck shall be taken as 4.3 m.

The design truck or tandem shall be positioned transversely such that the center of any
wheel load is not closer than:

 For the design of the deck overhang - 300 mm from the face of the curb or railing,
and
 For the design of all other components - 600 mm from the edge of the design lane.

Unless otherwise specified, the lengths of design lanes, or parts thereof, that contribute to
the extreme force effect under consideration, shall be loaded with the design lane load.

The lane load is not interrupted to provide space for the axle sequences of the design
tandem or the design truck.

3.7 CENTRIFUGAL FORCES (CE= VEHICULAR CENTRIFUGAL FORCE)

Centrifugal forces shall be taken as the product of the axle weights of the design truck or
tandem and the factor C, taken as:

C = 4 v2
3 g*R

where: v = highway design speed (m/s)

g = gravitational acceleration: 9.81 (m/s2)
R = radius of curvature of traffic lane (m)

Highway design speed shall not be taken to be less than the value specified in the
Geometric Design Manual-2001, Chapter 5: Design Controls & Criteria, Section 5.8:
Design Speed. The multiple presence factors specified above in subchapter Multiple
_____________________________________________________________________________ 6
Fundamentals of bridge design
Department of Civil Engineering
______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

Presence of Live Load shall apply. Centrifugal forces shall be applied horizontally at a
distance 1.8 m above the roadway surface.

Lane load is neglected in computing the centrifugal force, as the spacing of vehicles at
high speed is assumed to be large, resulting in a low density of vehicles following and/or
preceding the design truck.

3.8 BRAKING FORCE (BR= VEHICULAR BRAKING FORCE)

Based on energy principles, and assuming uniform deceleration (retardation), the braking
force determined as a fraction "b" of vehicle weight is:

b = v2
2ga
where a = the length of uniform deceleration.
Calculations using a braking length of 122 m and a speed of 90 km/h (25 m/s) yield b =
0.26 for a horizontal force that will act for a period of about 10 seconds. The factor "b"
applies to all lanes in one direction because all vehicles may have reacted within this time
frame. Only the design truck or tandem is to be considered.
Braking forces shall be taken as 25 % of the axle weights of the design truck or tandem
per lane placed in all design lanes which are considered to be loaded in accordance with
above subchapter Number of Design Lanes, and which are carrying traffic headed in the
same direction. These forces shall be assumed to act horizontally at the level of the
roadway surface in either longitudinal direction to cause extreme force effects. All
design lanes shall be simultaneously loaded for bridges likely to become one-directional
in the future.

3.9 WIND LOAD (WL= WIND ON LIVE LOAD; WS= WIND LOAD ON STRUCTURE)

HORIZONTAL WIND PRESSURE

General
Pressures specified herein shall be assumed to be caused by a base design wind velocity,
VB, of 160 km/h (= 45 m/s).
Wind load shall be assumed to be uniformly distributed on the area exposed to the wind.
The exposed area shall be the sum of areas of all components, including floor system and
railing, as seen in elevation taken perpendicular to the assumed wind direction. This
direction shall be varied to determine the extreme force effect in the structure or in its
components. Areas that do not contribute to the extreme force effect under consideration
shall be neglected in the analysis.
For bridges or parts of bridges more than 10 m above low ground or water level, the
design wind velocity, VDZ (km/h), at design elevation, z, should be adjusted according to:

V 10 Z 
VDZ  2.5 * Vo   In  
VB  Zo 
_____________________________________________________________________________ 7
Fundamentals of bridge design
Department of Civil Engineering
______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

where: V10 = wind velocity at 10 m above low ground or above design water level (km/h)
VB = base wind velocity of 160 km/h (45 m/s) at 10 m height, yielding design
pressures specified in following subchapters Wind Pressure on Structures
and Vertical Wind Pressure
Z = height of structure at which wind loads are being calculated as measured from
low ground, or from water level, > 10 m (m)
Vo = friction velocity, a meteorological wind characteristic taken, as specified in
Table 3-4, for various upwind surface characteristics (km/h)
Zo = friction length of upstream fetch, a meteorological wind characteristic taken
as specified in Table 3-4 below (m)

V10 shall be established from:

 Basic Wind Speed charts available from National Meteorological Services Agency
for various recurrence intervals,
 Site-specific wind surveys, or
 In the absence of better criterion, the assumption that V10 = VB =145 km/h (= 40 m/s)
shall be used for small and medium sized bridges.

The following descriptions are for the terms "open country" and "suburban" in Table 3-4:
 Open Country: Open terrain with scattered obstructions having heights generally less
than 10 m. This category includes flat open country and grasslands.
 Urban and Suburban: Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, or other terrain
with numerous closely spaced obstructions having the size of single-family or larger
dwellings. Use of this category shall be limited to those areas for which
representative terrain prevails in the upwind direction at least 500 m.

CONDITION OPEN COUNTRY URBAN AND SUBURBAN

Vo (km/h) 13.2 17.6
Zo (m) 70 1000
Table 3-4 Values of Vo and Zo for Various Upstream Surface Conditions

Base design wind velocity varies significantly due to local conditions. For small and/or
low structures, wind usually does not govern. For large and/or tall bridges, however, the
local conditions should be investigated.
Pressures on windward and leeward sides are to be taken simultaneously in the assumed
direction of wind.
Typically, a bridge structure should be examined separately under wind pressures from
two or more different directions in order to ascertain those windward, leeward, and side
pressures producing the most critical loads on the structure.
The suggested wind speed V10 = 40 m/s should be compared with the Ethiopian Building
Code Standard, where V10 = 150 km/h (42 m/s) is used for the highest mountaintops. The
National Atlas of Ethiopia shows that the western parts of the country (Bahar Dar,
Nekemte, Gore, Jima, Awasa and Goba) have a wind speed (V10) that never exceeds 15
knots (equal to 30 m/s or 105 km/h). However, since the National Meteorological
_____________________________________________________________________________ 8
Fundamentals of bridge design
Department of Civil Engineering
______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

Services Agency has collected wind data only every 4 hours it is not certain that the
maximum wind speeds are given at the meteorological stations. Therefore, it is
recommended to make separate observations for large or wind-sensitive bridges.

Equation 3.2 below is based on boundary layer theory combined with empirical
observations and represents the most recent approach to defining wind speeds for various
conditions as used in meteorology. In the past, an exponential equation was sometimes
used to relate wind speed to heights above 10 m. This formulation was based solely on
empirical observations and had no theoretical basis.

Z 
VDZ  CV10 *   (3.2)
10
The purpose of the term C and exponent "" was to adjust the equation for various
upstream surface conditions, similar to the use of Table 3-4 (further information can be
found in Refs.)

Wind Pressure on Structures: WS

For small and medium sized concrete bridges below 50m length the wind load on
structures shall be neglected.

For large and/or light bridges the following shall apply. If justified by local conditions, a
different base design wind velocity shall be selected for load combinations not involving
wind on live load. The direction of the design wind shall be assumed horizontal, unless
otherwise specified in the following subchapter Aero elastic Instability. In the absence of
more precise data, design wind pressure, PD in kPa, shall be determined as:

2
VDZ
2

PD  PB    PB V DZ
VB  25600
Where PB = base wind pressure specified in Table 3-5 (kPa):

STRUCTURAL COMPONENT WINDWARD LOAD, kPa LEEWARD LOAD, kPa

Trusses, Columns, and Arches 2.4 1.2
Beams 2.4 Not applicable
Large Flat Surfaces 1.9 Not applicable
Table 3-5 Base Pressures, PB Corresponding to VB = 160 km/h (45 m/s)

The wind loading shall not be taken less than 4.4 kN/m2 in the plane of a windward chord
and 2.2 kN/m2 in the plane of a leeward chord on truss and arch components, and not
less than 4.4 kN/m2 on beam or girder components.
Wind tunnel tests shall be used to provide more precise estimates of wind pressures. Such testing should be considered where wind is
a major design load.

Where the wind is not taken as normal to the structure, the base wind pressures, PB, for
various angles of wind direction shall be taken as specified in Table 2-6 and shall be
applied to a single place of exposed area. The skew angle shall be taken as measured
from a perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. The wind direction for design shall be that
_____________________________________________________________________________ 9
Fundamentals of bridge design
Department of Civil Engineering
______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

which produces the extreme force effect on the component under investigation. The
transverse and longitudinal pressures shall be applied simultaneously.
(kPa) Columns and Arches Girders
Skew Angle of Wind, Lateral Longitudinal Lateral Load Longitudinal
Degrees Load Load Load
0 3.6 0 2.4 0
15 3.4 0.6 2.1 0.3
30 3.1 1.3 2.0 0.6
45 2.3 2.0 1.6 0.8
60 1.1 2.4 0.8 0.9
Table 3-6 Base Wind Pressures, PB (kPa) for Various Angles of Attack VB=160 km/h.

For trusses, columns, and arches, the base wind pressures specified in Table 3-6 are the
sum of the pressures applied to both the windward and leeward areas.

The transverse and longitudinal forces to be applied directly to the substructure shall be
calculated from an assumed base wind pressure of 1.9 kPa. For wind directions taken
skewed to the substructure, this force shall be resolved into components perpendicular to
the end and front elevations of the substructure. The component perpendicular to the end
elevation shall act on the exposed substructure area as seen in end elevation, and the
component perpendicular to the front elevation shall act on the exposed areas and shall be
applied simultaneously with the wind loads from the superstructure.

Wind Pressure on Vehicles: WL

When vehicles are present, the design wind pressure shall be applied to both structure and
vehicles. Wind pressure on vehicles shall be represented by an interruptible, moving
force of 1.5 kN/m acting normal to, and 1.8 m above, the roadway and shall be
transmitted to the structure.

When wind on vehicles is not taken as normal to the structure, the components of normal
and parallel force applied to the live load shall be taken as specified in Table 3-7 with the
skew angle taken as referenced normal to the surface.

Skew Angle (Degrees) Normal Component (kN/m) Parallel Component (kN/m)

0 1.46 0
15 1.28 0.18
30 1.20 0.35
45 0.96 0.47
60 0.50 0.55

Table 2-7 Wind Components on Live Load

Based on practical experience, maximum live loads are not expected to be present on the
bridge when the wind velocity exceeds 90 km/h. The load factor corresponding to the
treatment of wind on structure only in Load Combination Strength III would be
_____________________________________________________________________________ 10
Fundamentals of bridge design
Department of Civil Engineering
______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

(90/145)2*1.4 = 0.54, which has been rounded to 0.5 in the Strength IV Load
Combination. This load factor corresponds to 0.3 in Service 1.

VERTICAL WIND PRESSURE

Unless otherwise determined in following subchapter Aero elastic Instability, a vertical
upward wind force of 1.0 kPa (kN/m2) times the width of the deck, including parapets
and sidewalks, shall be considered a longitudinal line load. This force shall be applied
only for large and/or other than concrete bridges. It shall be applied only for limit states
that do not involve wind on live load, and only when the direction of wind is taken to be
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bridge. This lineal force shall be applied at
the windward quarter-point of the deck width in conjunction with the horizontal wind
loads specified in the previous subchapter Horizontal Wind Pressure.
The intent of this subchapter is to account for the effect resulting from interruption of the
horizontal flow of air by the superstructure. This load is to be applied even to
discontinuous bridge decks, such as grid decks. This load may govern where overturning
of the bridge is investigated.

AERO ELASTIC INSTABILITY

Aero elastic force effects shall be taken into account in the design of bridges and
structural components that are wind-sensitive. All bridges and structural components
thereof with a span length to width or depth ratio exceeding 30.0 shall be deemed wind-
sensitive.
Many bridges, decks, or individual structural components have been shown to be aero
elastically insensitive if their length-to-width or length-to-depth ratios are about 30.0, a
somewhat arbitrary value helpful only in identifying likely wind-sensitive cases.
2.10 WATER LOADS (WA= WATER LOAD AND STREAM PRESSURE)
STATIC PRESSURE
Static pressure of water shall be assumed to act perpendicular to the surface that is
retaining the water. Pressure shall be calculated as the product of height of water above
the point of consideration, the density of water, and "g" (the acceleration of gravity =
9.81 m/s2).
p =  * g * z * 10-9
where p = static pressure (Mpa)
 = density of water (kg/m3)
z = height of water above the point of consideration (mm)
g = Gravitational acceleration (m/s2)

STREAM PRESSURE

Longitudinal
For the purpose of this chapter, the longitudinal direction refers to the major axis of a
substructure unit.
The pressure of flowing water acting in the longitudinal direction of substructures shall
be taken as:
_____________________________________________________________________________ 11
Fundamentals of bridge design
Department of Civil Engineering
______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

p = 5.14*10-4 CDV2 (3.3)

where: p = pressure of flowing water (MPa)

CD = drag coefficient for piers as specified in Table 3-8
V = design velocity in m/s of water for the design flood in strength and service
limit states and for the check flood in the extreme event limit state (see ERA
Drainage Design Manual-2001, Chapter 5: Hydrology).
Type CD
Semicircular-nosed pier 0.7
Square-ended pier 1.4
Debris lodged against the pier 1.4
Wedged-nosed pier with nose angle 90o or less 0.8
Table 3-8 Drag Coefficient

The longitudinal drag force shall be taken as the product of longitudinal stream pressure
and the projected surface exposed thereto.
Floating logs, roots, and other debris may accumulate at piers and, by blocking parts of
the waterway, increase stream pressure load on the pier. Such accumulation is a function
of the availability of such debris and level of maintenance efforts by which it is removed.
It shall be accounted for by the judicious increase in both the exposed surface and the
velocity of water.
The following provision (Ref. 2) shall be used as guidance in the absence of site-specific
criteria:
 Where a significant amount of driftwood is carried, water pressure shall also be
allowed for on a driftwood raft lodged against the pier. The size of the raft is a matter
of judgment, but as a guide, Dimension A in Figure 3-3 should be half the water
depth, but not greater than 3m. Dimension B should be half the sum of adjacent span
lengths, but no greater than 14 m. Pressure shall be calculated using Equation 3.3,
with CD = 0.5.

Figure 3-3 Debris Raft for Pier Design

Lateral

_____________________________________________________________________________ 12
Fundamentals of bridge design
Department of Civil Engineering
______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

The lateral, uniformly distributed pressure on substructure due to water flowing at an

angle, , to the longitudinal axis of the pier (see Figure 2-4) shall be taken as:

PL = 5.14 x 10-4CLV2

where: PL = lateral pressure (MPa)

CL = lateral drag coefficient specified in Table 3-9 below.

Figure 3-4 Plan View of Pier Showing Stream Flow Pressure

Angle, , between direction of flow and CL

longitudinal axis of the pier
0o 0.0
1o 0.5
10o 0.7
20o 0.9
30o 1.0
(Ref 15)
Table 3-9 Lateral Drag Coefficient

The lateral drag force shall be taken as the product of the lateral stream pressure and the
surface exposed thereto.

3.11 EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS (EQ= EARTHQUAKE)

GENERAL
Earthquake loads shall be taken to be horizontal force effects determined on the basis of
the elastic response coefficient, Csm and the equivalent weight of the superstructure,
adjusted by the response modification factor, R.

ACCELERATION COEFFICIENT

The coefficient, "A", to be used in the application of these provisions shall be determined
from the contour map of Ethiopia in Figure 3-5. Linear interpolation shall be used for
sites located between contour lines or between a contour line and a local maximum or
minimum.

_____________________________________________________________________________ 13
Fundamentals of bridge design
Department of Civil Engineering
______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

IMPORTANCE CATEGORIES

The bridges within Zone 4 (mainly Rift Valley) shall be classified into one of three
importance categories as follows:
 Critical bridges,
 Essential bridges, or
 Other bridges.
The basis of classification shall include social/survival and security/defense requirements.
In classifying a bridge, consideration should be given to possible future changes in
conditions and requirements.

Figure 2.5. Earthquake zones

Essential bridges are generally those that should, as a minimum, be open to emergency
vehicles and for security/defense purposes immediately after the design earthquake, i.e., a
475-year return period event. However, some bridges must remain open to all traffic after
the design earthquake and be usable by emergency vehicles and for security/defense
purposes immediately after a large earthquake, e.g., a 2500 year return period event.
These bridges should be regarded as critical structures.

_____________________________________________________________________________ 14
Fundamentals of bridge design
Department of Civil Engineering
______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

ACCELERATION COEFFICIENTS

Each bridge shall be assigned to one of the seismic zones in accordance with Table 2-10
below:

EBCS zone from Figure 3-9 Acceleration Coefficient

1 A  0.03
2 0.03 < A  0.05
3 0.05 < A  0.07
4 0.07 < A  0.10

Table 3-10 Seismic Zones

SITE EFFECTS: SOIL PROFILES

Site effects shall be included in the determination of seismic loads for bridges. Site
effects on structural response are due to the soil conditions. Four soil profiles are used in

_____________________________________________________________________________ 15
Fundamentals of bridge design
Department of Civil Engineering
______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

these Specifications to define a site coefficient used to modify the acceleration

coefficient.

The site coefficient, S, is used to include the effect of site conditions on the elastic
seismic response coefficient as specified in the following subchapter.

The site coefficient, S, specified in Table 2-11 (below), shall be based upon soil profile
types defined below.

Site Soil Profile Type

Coefficient I II III IV
S 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0

Table 3-11 Site Coefficients

In locations where the soil properties are not known in sufficient detail to determine the
soil profile type, or where the profile does not fit any of the four types, the site coefficient
for Soil Profile Type II shall be used.

A soil profile shall be taken as Type I if composed of rock of any description, either
shale-like or crystalline in nature, or stiff soils where the soil depth is less than 60 m, and
the soil types overlying the rock are stable deposits of sands, gravels, or stiff clays.
These materials shall be characterized by a shear wave velocity greater than 765 m/s.

A profile with stiff cohesive or deep cohesionless soils where the soil depth exceeds 60 m
and the soil types overlying the rock are stable deposits of sands, gravels, or stiff clays
shall be taken as Type II.

A profile with soft to medium-stiff clays and sands, characterized by 9 m or more of soft
to medium-stiff clays with or without intervening layers of sand or other cohesionless
soils shall be taken as Type III.

A profile with soft clays or silts greater than 12 m in depth shall be taken as Type IV.
These materials shall be characterized by a shear wave velocity of less than 152 m/s and
might include loose natural deposits or manmade, nonengineered fill.

ELASTIC SEISMIC RESPONSE COEFFICIENT

Unless specified otherwise as exceptions in this subchapter, the elastic seismic response
coefficient, Csm, for the mth mode of vibration shall be taken as:
1.2AS
Csm   2.5A
Tm 2 / 3
where:Tm = period of vibration of the mth mode (s)
_____________________________________________________________________________ 16
Fundamentals of bridge design
Department of Civil Engineering
______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

A = acceleration coefficient specified in Table 3-10

S = site coefficient specified in Table 3-11
The determination of the period of vibration, Tm, should be based on the nominal,
unfactored mass of the component or structure.
The elastic seismic response coefficient shall be normalized using the input ground
acceleration "A” and the result plotted against the period of vibration. Such a plot is
given in Figure 3-6 for different soil profiles, based on 5 % damping.

Figure 3-6 Seismic Response Coefficients, Csm for Various Soil Profiles,
Normalized with Respect to Acceleration Coefficient "A" (Csm on the left
axis)

Exceptions to the application of Equation for Csm are as follows:

 For bridges on soil profiles III or IV, Csm need not exceed 2.0*A.

 For soil profiles III and IV, and for modes other than the fundamental mode, that have
periods less than 0.3 s, Csm shall be taken as:

Csm = A (0.8 + 4.0*Tm)

 If the period of vibration for any mode exceeds 4.0 s, the value of C sm for that mode
shall be taken as:

Csm = 3AS
Tm4/3

_____________________________________________________________________________ 17
Fundamentals of bridge design
Department of Civil Engineering
______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

RESPONSE MODIFICATION FACTORS

Except as noted herein, seismic design force effects for substructures and the connections
between parts of structures shall be determined by dividing the force effects resulting
from elastic analysis by the appropriate response modification factor, R, as specified in
Tables 3-12 and 3-13, respectively.

Substructure Importance Category

Critical Essential Other
Wall-type piers – larger dimension 1.5 1.5 2.0
Reinforced concrete pile bents
 Vertical piles only 1.5 2.0 3.0
 With battered piles 1.5 1.5 2.0
Single columns 1.5 2.0 3.0
Steel or composite steel and concrete pile bents
 Vertical pile only
 With battered piles 1.5 3.5 5.0
1.5 2.0 3.0
Multiple column bents 1.5 3.5 5.0
Table 3-12 Response Modification R-Factors for Substructures

Connection All Importance Categories

Superstructure to abutment 0.8
Expansion joints within a span of the superstructure 0.8
Columns, piers, or pile bents to cap beam or superstructure 1.0
Columns or piers to foundations 1.0
Table 3-13 Response Modification R-Factors for Connections

ANALYSIS FOR EARTHQUAKE LOADS

General
Bridges in Seismic Zone 1-3 need not be analyzed for seismic loads, regardless of their
importance and geometry.

Single-Span Bridges

Seismic analysis is not required for single-span bridges, regardless of seismic zone.

Multispan Bridges

For multispan structures, the minimum analysis requirements shall be as specified below:

_____________________________________________________________________________ 18
Fundamentals of bridge design
 Department of Civil Engineering
______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

Seismic Single-Span Multispan Bridges

Zone Bridges Other Bridges Essential Bridges Critical Bridges
Regular Irregular Regular Irregular Regular Irregular
1-3 No Seismic Analysis * * * * * *
4 Seismic Analysis SM/UL SM SM/UL MM MM MM

Table 3-14 Minimum Analysis Requirements for Seismic Effects

in which:
* = no seismic analysis required (Zone 1-3)
UL = uniform load elastic method
SM = single-mode elastic method
MM = multimode elastic method

3.12 LOAD FACTORS AND COMBINATIONS

GENERAL
The total factored force effect: Q = ii Qi ----------- Equation 3.4

where:
i= load modifier (a factor relating to ductility, redundancy and operational
importance)
Qi = force effects from loads specified herein
i = load factors

Ductility, redundancy, and operational importance are significant aspects affecting the
margin of safety of bridges. Whereas the first two directly relate to physical strength, the
last concerns the consequences of the bridge being out of service.

DUCTILITY
The response of structural components or connections beyond the elastic limit can be
characterized by either brittle or ductile behavior. Under repeated seismic loading, large
reversed cycles of inelastic deformation dissipate energy and have a beneficial effect on
structural survival.
If, by means of confinement or other measures, a structural component or connection
made of brittle materials can sustain inelastic deformations without significant loss of
load-carrying capacity, this component can be considered ductile. Such ductile
performance shall be verified by testing.
The structural system of a bridge shall be proportioned and detailed to ensure the
development of significant and visible inelastic deformations at the strength and extreme
event limit states prior to failure.
For the strength limit state, the ductility factor
D  1.05 for non-ductile components and connections
D = 1.00 for conventional designs and details complying with these
Specifications

_____________________________________________________________________________ 19
Fundamentals of bridge design
Department of Civil Engineering
______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

D ≤ 0.95 for components and connections for which additional ductility-

enhancing measures have been specified beyond those required by these
Specifications
For all other limit states:
D = 1.00

REDUNDANCY
Main elements and components whose failure is expected to cause the collapse of the
bridge shall be designated as failure-critical and the associated structural system as non-
redundant. Alternatively, failure-critical members in tension shall be designated fracture-
critical.
Those elements and components whose failure is not expected to cause collapse of the
bridge shall be designated as non-failure-critical and the associated structural system as
redundant.
For the strength limit state:
R  1.05 for non-redundant members
= 1.00 for conventional levels of redundancy
 0.95 for exceptional levels of redundancy
For all other limit states:
R = 1.00
For each load combination and limit state under consideration, member redundancy
classification (redundant or non-redundant) should be based upon the member
contribution to the bridge safety.

OPERATIONAL IMPORTANCE
This definition shall apply to the strength and extreme event limit states only. Some
bridges or structural components and connections shall be declared to be of operational
importance.
Such classification should be based on social/survival and/or security/defense
requirements.
Three levels of importance are specified with respect to seismic design: "critical,"
"essential," and "other." Bridges classified as "critical" or "essential" should be
considered of "operational importance."
For the strength limit state:
l  1.05 for important bridges
= 1.00 for typical bridges
 0.95 for relatively less important bridges
For all other limit states:
l = 1.00
2.12 LIMIT STATES

STRENGTH LIMIT STATE

The strength limit state shall be taken to ensure that strength and stability, both local and
global, are provided to resist the specified statistically significant load combinations that
a bridge is expected to experience in its design life.
_____________________________________________________________________________ 20
Fundamentals of bridge design
Department of Civil Engineering
______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

Extensive distress and structural damage may occur under strength limit state, but overall
structural integrity is expected to be maintained.

EXTREME EVENT LIMIT STATES

The extreme event limit state shall be taken to ensure the structural survival of a bridge
during a major earthquake or flood, possibly under scoured conditions.
Extreme event limit states are considered to be unique occurrences whose return period
shall be significantly greater than the design life of the bridge.

SERVICE LIMIT STATE

The service limit state shall be taken as restrictions on stress, deformation, and crack
width under regular service conditions. The service limit state provides certain experience
related provisions that cannot always be derived solely from strength or statistical
considerations.

FATIGUE AND FRACTURE LIMIT STATE

The fatigue limit state shall be taken as restrictions on stress range as a result of a single
design truck occurring at the number of expected stress range cycles.
The fatigue limit state is intended to limit crack growth under repetitive loads to prevent
fracture during the design life of the bridge.
The fracture limit state shall be taken as a set of material toughness requirements of the
Technical Specifications.

Limit States
STRENGTH I Basic load combination relating to the normal vehicular use of the bridge without wind.

STRENGTH II Load combination relating to the use of the bridge by ERA-specified special design or
permit vehicles, without wind.
STRENGTH III Load combination relating to the bridge exposed to wind velocity exceeding 90 km/h.

STRENGTH IV Load combination relating to very high dead load to live load force effect ratios.

STRENGTH V Load combination relating to normal vehicular use of the bridge with wind of 90 km/h
(25 m/s) velocity
EXTREME Load combination including earthquake
EVENT
SERVICE I Load combination relating to the normal operational use of the bridge with a 90 km/h
(25 m/s) wind and all loads taken at their nominal values. Also related to deflection
control in buried metal structures, tunnel liner plate, and thermoplastic pipe and to
control crack width in reinforced concrete structures. This load combination should also
be used for the investigation of slope stability.
Compression in prestressed concrete components is investigated using this load
combination. Service III is used to investigate tensile stresses in prestressed concrete
components.
SERVICE II Load combination intended to control yielding of steel structures and slip of slip
critical connections due to vehicular live load.
This load combination corresponds to the overload provision for steel structures, and it
_____________________________________________________________________________ 21
Fundamentals of bridge design
Department of Civil Engineering
______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

is applicable only to steel structures. From the point of view of load level, this
combination is approximately halfway between that used for Service I and Strength I
Limit States.
SERVICE III Load combination relating only to tension in prestressed concrete structures with the
objective of crack control.
FATIGUE Fatigue and fracture load combination relating to repetitive gravitational vehicular live
load and dynamic responses under a single design truck having a constant axle spacing
of 9.0 m between 145 kN axles.
The load factor, applied to a single design truck, reflects a load level found to be
representative of the truck population with respect to a large number of return cycles of
stresses and to their cumulative effects in steel elements, components, and connections.

The load factors for various loads comprising a design load combination shall be taken as
specified in the following table. All relevant subsets of the load combinations shall be
investigated. For each load combination, every load that is indicated to be taken into
account and that is germane to the component being designed, including all significant
effects due to distortion, shall be multiplied by the appropriate load factor and multiple
presence factor, if applicable. The products shall be summed as specified in Equation 3.4
and multiplied by the load modifiers.

The factors shall be selected to produce the total extreme factored force effect. For each
load combination, both positive and negative extremes shall be investigated.

In load combinations where one force effect decreases another effect, the minimum value
shall be applied to the load reducing the force effect. For permanent force effects, the
load factor that produces the more critical combination shall be selected from the
following table. Where the permanent load increases the stability or load-carrying
capacity of a component or bridge, the minimum value of the load factor for that
permanent load shall also be investigated.

The larger of the two values provided for load factors of Uniform Temperature (TU),
Creep (CR), and Shrinkage (SH) shall be used for deformations and the smaller values
for all other effects.

In the application of permanent loads, force effects for each of the specified six load
types should be computed separately. It is unnecessary to assume that one type of load
varies by span, length, or component within a bridge.

Load DC LL WA WS WL FR TU TG SE Use one of

Combination DD IM CR these at a
DW CE SH time
EH BR
EV PL
ES LS
Limit State EL EQ CT
STRENGTH 1 p 1.75 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -
(Unless noted)
_____________________________________________________________________________ 22
Fundamentals of bridge design
Department of Civil Engineering
______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

STRENGTH II p 1.35 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -

STRENGTH III p - 1.00 1.40 - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -
STRENGTH IV - -
EH, EV, ES, DW p - 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 - -
DC ONLY 1.5
STRENGTH V p 1.35 1.00 0.50 1.0 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -
EXTREME p EQ 1.00 - - 1.00 - - - 1.0 -
EVENT 0
SERVICE I 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.30 1.0 1.00 1.00/1.20 TG SE - -
SERVICE II 1.00 1.30 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 - - - -
SERVICE III 1.00 0.80 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 TG SE - -
FATIGUE
LL, IM and CE - 0.75 - - - - - - - - -
ONLY

Where (see following text):

BR = vehicular braking force FR = friction
CE = vehicular centrifugal force IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
CR = creep LL = vehicular live load
CT = vehicular collision force LS = live load surcharge
DC = dead load of structural components PL = pedestrian live load
DD = downdrag SE = settlement
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities SH = shrinkage
EH = horizontal earth pressure load TG = temperature gradient
EL = accumulated locked-in effects resulting TU = uniform temperature
from the construction process WA = water load and stream pressure
EQ = earthquake load WL = wind on live load
ES = earth surcharge load WS = wind load on structure
EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill

Load Combinations and Load Factors

Consider the investigation of uplift. Where a permanent load produces uplift, that load
would be multiplied by the maximum load factor, regardless of the span in which it is
located. If another permanent load reduces the uplift, it would be multiplied by the
minimum load factor, regardless of the span in which it is located. For example, at
Strength I Limit State where the permanent load reaction is positive and live load can
cause a negative reaction, the load combination would be:
0.9DC + 0.65DW + 1.75(LL+IM)
If both reactions were negative, the load combination would be:
1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.75(LL+IM).

Type of Load Load Factor (p)

Maximum Minimum
_____________________________________________________________________________ 23
Fundamentals of bridge design
Department of Civil Engineering
______________________________________________________________Chapter 3_

DC: Component and Attachments 1.25 0.90

DD: Downdrag 1.80 0.45
DW: Wearing Surfaces and Utilities 1.50 0.65
EH: Horizontal Earth Pressure
 Active 1.50 0.90
 At-Rest 1.35 0.90
EL: Locked-in Erection Stresses 1.0 1.0
EV: Vertical Earth Pressure
 Overall Stability 1.35 N/A
 Retaining Structure 1.35 1.00
 Rigid Buried Structure 1.30 0.90
 Rigid Frames 1.35 0.90
 Flexible Buried Structures other than 1.95 0.90
Metal Box Culvert
 Flexible Metal Box Culverts 1.50 0.90
ES: Earth Surcharge 1.50 0.75
Load Factors for Permanent Loads, p

For each force effect, both extreme combinations may need to be investigated by
applying either the high or the low load factor as appropriate. The algebraic sums of these
products are the total force effects for which the bridge and its components should be
designed.
LOAD FACTORS FOR CONSTRUCTION LOADS
Load factors for the weight of the structure and appurtenances shall not be taken to be
less than 1.25.
Unless otherwise specified by ERA, the load factor for construction loads, for equipment
and for dynamic effects shall not be less than 1.5. The load factor for wind shall not be
less than 1.25. All other load factors shall be taken as 1.0.
The load factors presented here should not relieve the contractor of responsibility for
safety and damage control during construction.

_____________________________________________________________________________ 24
Fundamentals of bridge design