1st segment

1st segment -
it starts from screen ht till ldg gear retraction action to retrCT ldg gear
1. flaps to take off position
2. Speed to v 2
3. Climb gradient positive
4. Take off power

2nd segment
This is the most limited segment that starts from landing retraction till minimum clear
of 400Ft
1. speed v2
2. flaps t/o
3. climb gradient 2.4 %
4. power t/o

3rd segment
Acceleration altitude till flaps retracted
1. Climb gradient to 0-1.4%
2. flap retraction speed
1. flaps retracting
2. NCT
3. Clean speed
4. Power continous

4 SEGMENT
It will start from flaps retracted to 1500 ft
Speed climb speed
Climb gradient 1.2percent
Gear retracted flaps retracted
Nct Ratio of ht
Climb gradient =
Horizontal distance

GROSS GRADIENT - it is the performance of the aircraft in actual conditions

Net gradient- gross gradient as per regulation

Density altitude
Current density prevails in ISA conditions
DENSITY DECREASES desity altit increases
Takeoff run required more
Overall aircraft performance reduces

HHH(HOT HUMID HIGH)

DENSITY DECREASES

Performance of the aircraft with respect to weight of the aircraft

• Takeoff, landing and stop distance will increase
• V1 vr and v2 increase
• Climb gradient will decrease and ceiling height will reduce services
• Rate of dissent will increase
Stall
• When the weight, increase, low-speed stall will happen at higher speed and high-speed
stall will happen at lower speed
• Drag will increase
• Fuel consumption will increase
• Wing roots, stress will increase
• Brake wear, and tear will increase
Centre of gravity
It is the point of balance. It is the point at which total weight of the aircraft will act
• it is the point of the aircraft. All the three axis will pass it.
datum
- Pointfrom where centre of gravity will be referred
Balance arm
It is the distance between current centre of gravity and the datum
Ballast
It is the permanent or temporary installed in the aircraft used to bring current centre of gravity
within the limits, it can be fuel also it is included in basic empty weight

Performance of the aircraft with respect to Centre of gravity forward

• Stability increases
• Stick forces increases
• Fuel fuel consumption increases
• Range decreases
• Rotation speed increases
• Stall speed increases

TORA
TAKE OF RUN AVAILABLE
IT IS THE LENGTH OF THE RUNWAY REQUIRED FOR NORMAL OPERATIONS
IF Length of the runway required in actual conditions if the TORR increases than the TORA
Actuall weight will decrease ATAO

Stopway
It is the area beyond the runway having width equal to runway which is used to bring the
aircraft to the complete stop during the aborted takeoff operation without causing any
structural damage to the aircraft
• It has higher friction coefficient

TORA+STOPWAY (TODA) = ASDA ASDR

Clearway
What is the area beyond the TORA NOT LESS WIDE THAN 152 mtr
Having a slope of 1.25 percent above, which no Terrain or object must exist above except
rwy lights i
It can be above water or land
These lenghts are available in the AIP , JEPSEN CHARTS ,RTOW CHARTS

In aviation, clearway is a term related to the dimension of some runways and it is abbreviated
with CWY. A clearway is an area beyond the paved runway, free of obstructions and under
the control of the airport authorities. The length of the clearway may be included in the length
of the takeoff distance available (Take Off Distance Available (TODA)). For example, if a paved
runway is 2000 m long and there are 400 m of clearway beyond the end of the runway, the
takeoff distance available is 2400 m long.
Met

Metar
Issued every. 30 mins
Valid 1 hr

Stn
Date/time
Winds /veering
Visibility
Rvr( p= plus,m=minus, u = increasing d= decreasing )

TAF
' \ Hc
Trade winds -
these are the north easterly and south westerly which flow between subtropical high to
equatorial low

Indian season -
• it is due to shifting of itcz
• India experience 4 seasons

NE Monsoon
• January - feb
• STJ
• Winter season
• Winds from the north east carry moisture from bay of bengal and drops it at the east of
india and in tamil nadu
• High pressure in northern part of india
• Sun at tropic of capricorn
• Low pressure indian ocean
• Western disturbances prevails 5-7 times per month
• fog appears radition in land areas and advection in waterbodies areas( coastal regions)
• If in 24 hr temp drop by 4° is cold wave increased by 4° is heat wave.
• In this season CAT IS more prevalent because of mountain waves and STJ
• LOWER LEVEL CAN GET SEVERE TURBULENCE

Summer / pre monsoon ( march - may)

• STJ prevails in the country but at j&k

• kal baisakhi further develops
Temp rises px drecres
Thunderstorm activity increases
Most dangerous season due to thunderstorms and kal baisakhis
Kal baisakhi also called as norwesters are developed in chota nagpur hill which moves towrd
the north and forms andhi and dust storms
Stj shift further north with weak weatern disturbance.
South west monsoon
June-sept
• starts from 1st weeknof june in Kerala
• Position of sun at extreme north 23
• Form will start to form from India from Sri Ganganagar to gangetic plains
• Trade wind will enter india from arabian sea and bay of bengal Kerala, first of June
Mumbai 10 of June New Delhi, 29th of June and whole country is considered to be 15th of
July
• Axis is formed on the Gangetic plane, which whenshift foothills of Himalaya will drop
moisture over there and with floods and extreme rainfallcalled as break of monsoon
• tropical easterly Jet stream prevail in the country

Monsoon in india is because of the posistion of ITCZ and reversal of trade winds
Post monsoon
Oct - DEC
Fair weather season ( retreating monsoon)
• In this seson trade winds re enter India but are very weak
• 21 december itcz is at tropic of capricorn
• STJ re enters with weak WD
• hence fog starts to develop with low visibility
• This season is also known for the cyclone in indian ocean
Jetstreams
Formed due to temp differences between 2 air masses These are the thermal winds with
speed more than 60 knots it flows like a tubular structure with the path of the maximum wind
at the axis the immediate part is called core.

Subtropical Jet Stream - STJ

These are the westerly jetstreams
Height - 12 - 16 km ( In India 12km )
Position - 22ºN - 27°N
Speed - 100 - 200 Kts
Duration in India - Oct - May

Tropical Easterly Jet streams - TEJ

These are the easterly jet streams height - 14 - 16 km speed - 80 - 160 kts
position - below 25°N in India position is 13°N
near Chennai
duration - June - sept
STJ subtropical jet stream
These are the jetstream height between 10 to 16 km
In India, Height is 12 km
Speed hundred to 200 knots
Duration in India October to may
Below 35° North

Tropical Easterly jet stream (TEJ)

• easterly jet stream, 14 to 15 km
• June to September
• Axis 13° north on Chennai

Western disturbances
• western disturbance these are the low px. Area which genrates in caspisn sea black sea
and Mediterranean sea by the movement of wd it comes to india gets re energise in the
arabian sea and drops the moisture st the northern part of india
• Stj drag these low px systems to india when it comes in the arabian se it re engises again
and drops the moisture in the north part of india due to which heavy rainfall wide spred fog
is formed
• Duration oct to may
• Frequency 5 to7 times a month in winters
• Western disturbances are always associated with STJ
• AFTER THE PASSAGE OF WD low vis fog persists in india
FOG

Cloud resting on the ground

Radiation fog -
Force due to the nocturnal radiation of the Earth, it forms due to the nocturnal radiation of the
Earth. It forms when temperature falls below dew point and high relative humidity then the
radiation fog is formed
• forms only on the land
• Light winds 5 to 7 kts are required and clear sky

Advection fog
• when the warm and moist air is transported over a cool surface
• It can form any time of the day
• It can form over the land or at water
Clouds
HIGH LEVEL CLOUDS
• Forms over 6 km
• Made of only ice crystals
• No ice accretion
• Prefix with the word cirri
Cirrus clouds
• shape like a filament or feather
• Made of only ice crystals
• No ice accretion
• No precipitation
• Good for flying
Cirro stratus
• shape like a sheep with uniform base and horizontal development
• Made of only ice crystals
• No ice accretion
• •made up of ice crystals
• Occasional precipitation
• Uniform base
CIRRO CUMULUS
• Shape like a giant ball with vertical development
• NO ice accretion
• No precipitation
• No turbulence
• Good for flying
Medium level clouds
• FOrmed between 2 to 8 km
• Made up of only super cooled ice droplets
• Possible Ice accretion prefix with alto
ALTO STRATUS
• shape like a sheet with horizontal development
• Uniform base
• Possible ice acc
• Possible precipitation
• Low turbulence
• Caution for flying

ALTO CUMULUS

• SHAPE LIKE A TOWER with vertical development

• Possible ice accretion
• No precipitation
• Low to moderate turbulence
• Caution for flying
• If alto cumulus is formed over the mountain is called lenticular clouds (cap cloud) which
indicates presence of mountain waves (turbulence)

Low level clouds

Stratus
• shaped like a sheet with horizontal development
• No ice accretion
• Possibly precipitation
• Low turbulence
• Good for flying
Strato cumulus
• shaped like a sheet vertical development
• No ice accretion
• Possibly precipitation
• Low turbulence
• Good for flying

NIMBOSTRATUS
• shape like a sheet with horizontal development
• Base of the cloud lies in the low level and top lies in the medium level
• Possibly ice accretion
• Responsible for continuous precipitation and flash flood
• Low to medium turbulence
• Caution for flying

TCU( TOWERING CUMULUS)

• shaped like a giant tower with vertical development
• Possible ice accretion
• No precipitation
• Possibly hailstones
• Extreme turbulence
• Dangerous for flying

Cumulonimbus
• same as TCU difference in precipitation
Thunderstorm
• is the cumulonimbus cloud with thunder and lightning in it
Requirement
1. high relative humidity
2. Steep lapse rate
3. Lifting mechanism (convective,convergence,orographic,frontal)

Formation stage/ cumulus stage

15 to 20 mins relative

• This is the formation stage of thunderstorm clouds grows exponentially

• only updrafts
• Speed approximately 30 mtr per sec
• Duration 15 to 20 mins relative
• entraintment Moisture outside the cloud goes inside the cloud due to low px system
• Virga it is there rain fall which comes out of the cloud but gets evaporated before reaching
ground
• mature stage starts when the rainfall hits the ground
• in this stage up draft down draft co exist with hailstones
• In this stage heavy precipitation occurs
• duration 25 to 30 mins

Coalescence theory
Its is the process in which small water droplets collides with each other and forms bigger
water droplets

Secondary clouds

• when the downdrafts come out of the clouds and take rolling structure it is call secondary
roll cloud

• When the down drafts come out of the cloud and takes a sheet like structure it is called a
secondary shelf cloud

Virga
It is the process in which rain fall will come from the cloud and evaporate from the
surroundings . it can be complete evaporation or partially evaporation
Microbursts
It is the process in which after the virga effect the surrounding air becomes cold and heavy
and air starts to sink down due to the gravity it gains the speed and hits the ground called as
microburst impact diametre less than 4 km is called microburst
impact diametre more than 4 km is called macroburst
• duration of single microburst is 1 to 5 mins
• Multiple microbursts - 15 mins
When microbrusts hits the ground at 70kmph and bounce back called as low level wind shear
Dissipating stage
• only weak down draft 30 to 40 mins relative
• False cirrus is formed Relative- to ammount of
moisture present in the area
• Maximum railfall weak intensity
• Anvil form in this stage called as false cirrus
• Hailstones are formed below the anvil
• this stage last 30 to 40 minutes relative

Severe turbulence
When passengers feel severe pain and un fastened things gets tossed in the air

Whn the lighting’s flashes happensnafter along duration

Frequent lighting and thunder wind speed upto 40 kts heavy precipitation

Continuous lightning and precipitation intense rainfall with hailstones

Hazards of thunderstorm
1. turbulence.
2. upDraft and downdraft
3. Squall and gust
4. Icing
5. hailstones
6. Lightning
7. heavy precipitation
8. instrument error ( overead)
9. Darkness and disorientation
Kalbaisakhi
• this is the severe thunderstorm which forms. Near the chota nagpur plateau in the pre
monsoon picks the moisture from the Bay of Bengal and drops in the east india this
storms further develops into dust storm called andhi
Icing
Ice accretion is the formation of ice crystals on the airframe

Super cooled water droplets

• These are the water droplets which remain in th liquid form below 0°C, because of lack of
condensation nuclei(surface)
Rime ice
• Formed due to the freezing of small cooled water droplets
• It forms on impact and forms very quickly
• since air is traped is clearly visible and easy to remove
• Less sticky
• White in colour easily identified
Clear ice
• it is formed due to freezing of large super cool water droplets
• It takes times to freeze and spreads on impact it is more sticky , more heavy ,most
dangerous
• heavy and more sticky ( transparent cannot be identified easily) dangerous

Type of icing Temp range

Severe icing

Moderate icing

Light icing

Very light icing

.

In the stratiform clouds due to the presence of large cool water droplets rime ice formed
In the cumiloform clouds due to the presence of large cool water droplets glaze ice is formed

Hoar frost
When the aircraft flies into an area of sub zero temp and it has to descend down to a area
where the temp are warm and the air is moist then the water vapour freezes on the air frame
called as hoar frost it can form in the air or ground

Hazards of icing
• it changes the aerodynamics
• It increases the weight decreases the lift increases drag
• Increases fuel consumption
• Decreases range
• Stall speed increases
• stall angle decreases
• If icing happens on control surfaces it might jam it
• If the icing happens on px sensor instrument wont work
Mountain wave

• These are the disturbed airflow which forms on the leeward side of the mountain when the
wind is obstructed by a barrier
• The requirement for the wind speed is 7 m/s for small mountain ans 15m/s for larger
mountain
• It is identified by the lenticular clouds,rotor clouds and fohn clouds
• Vertical wind shear of 25m/s is common
• Horizontal extent is 200 kms vertical extent til stratosphere
Tropical revolving storm

Tropical revolving storm is a low pressure area with the very very severe wind’s clouds and
heavy precipitation it is called as hurricane in America, cyclone in India,typhoon in Africa,
wheely willy in Australia

• it forms 5° above and below the equator

• warm sea at-least 26°C
• Deep sea atleast 60 mtr depth
• High relative humidity
• In stability

Characteristics of hurricane
• EYE OF THE STORM IT is the inner most area of TRS
• it is the area of sinking air high temperature calm winds and clear sky
• Diameter of 30 to 65 kms
• Eye wall it is also called as inner storm
• It is the area which surrounds the eye
• Area of most violent clouds
• Diameter 50 to 150 km
• Outer storm area outside theeye wall with the rain band
• It is the area of high speed winds and high rainfall
• Diameter 400km
• Edge of the storm area where air sinks down and storms dissipates
• It moves at the speed of 15 to 20kmph
•
Monsoon depression
• It is the low px area generated in the north Bay of Bengal with the surface winds 33kts
• It forms in the season of south west monsoon
• Has a life span of 3 to 5 days
• Some times these depression forms over the Arabian sea as well
NAVIGATION
1 and 60 rule

• Planned trackThe track which is planned for the ground

• Track made good the track which aircraft makes over the ground
• Track error angle between track made good and planned track
Instrument navigation

Dynamic pressure
When moving air is brought to rest

It is the ram rise + SAT

RAM RISE IT is the rise of the temperature due to the compression of air parcel,
Principle- dynamic
pressure
TAS ''
as the aircraft climbs density of the air decreases so speed of the ais has to be increased
called TAS

Manoeuvre induced error

Due to the abrupt movement of the aircraft the static px fluctuates in the casing due to which
capsule fluctuates and it becomes unreliable
Altimeter
QFE IT IS THE ARP PRESSURE
QNH airfield px reduce the mean sea level in isa condition

transition altitude altitude below which all the altitude of the aircraft is expressed as datum
level pressure of a AERODROME 4000(INDIA)
transition layer - while climbing QNE (LEVEL)
While descending datum px QNH (ALTITUDE)
V Speeds
Vso - stall speed on landing configuration
Vs1 - stall speed in clean configuration
Vfe - maximum flap extended speed
Vfo - maximum flap operation speed
Vle - maximum landing gear extended speed
Vlo - landing gear operational speed ( speed landing gear extended or retracted)
Vne - never exceed speed
Vno - normal operating speed (range)
VSI(Vertical speed indicator)
Principle -
Rate of change of static pressure
Construction
Casing with a capsule connected with a choke( to delay px in casings)

Errors
• Manoeuvre
• Instrument
• Position
• Lag error
• Blockage
Mach-meter
• It is a pressure instrument which indicates the ratio of true airspeed of the aircraft with
local speed of sound
• It is the mandatory instrument which helps the aircraft to fly below the local speed of
sound

• to avoid the danger associated with high speed flight maximum mach number(mmo) is
given
• It is the number above which shock waves will form
• Mcrit - (crtical mach number) at this speed 1st shock wave will form

Mach no =
When the aircraft is flying at a constant altitude maintaining same CAS if the temperature
drops then the density will increase to compensate it TAS has to be decreased hence ratio
remains constant and mach number doesn’t change

Barber pole is his age, black and white needle which gives VMO AND MMO
Magnetic compass
I am Nikakhe Da
It gives reference according to set datum
Magnetic dip
• it is the angle which is made by the earth magnetic field line with the horizontal plane of
earth
• It can be zero at magnetic equator
• 90 degrees at magnetic poles

Isoclinic line- line joining places of equal dip

Aclinic line - line joining places of 0 dip
Isogonal line - line joining equals declination

requirement of for the formation of magnetic compass

Horizontality -
It is required to give directions in horizontal plane hence centre of mass is concentrated
below the pivot point .by doing so the tilting effect of the magnet is opposed by the weigh of
the magnet

Sensitivity -
• The compass is required to be sensitive equally at all the places . To increase the
sensitivity a frictionless metal is used at the pivot point.
• instead of using a large magnet, multiple small magnets are used
• magnetic bowl is filled with liquid.

Aperiodicity -
• a compass is required to be Aperiodic or dead meat which mean after a manoeuvre
needle should stop quickly to achieve this dampening liquid and dampening wire is used.
Gyroscope
It is a rotating body with its mass on its periphery having the property of rigidity and
precession

Rigidity
• it is the property of a rotational gyro to maintain its rotational axis wrt to space

Methods to increase rigidity

1. increase rotor mass
2. Increase the rotor diameter
3. Concentrate the Rotor in mass around the perimeter of the rotor
4. Increase the speed of the rotor

Precession
It is the property of a rotating gyro in which force applied will act on 90° in the direction of
rotation
Wander
• Any departure of the rotational axis of the gyro from its fixed orientation. Any departure of
the gyro from its fixed orientation is called as wander.
• If the wander happens in the vertical plane, it’s called Topple
• If the wander happens in the horizontal plane, it’s called drift

Types of wonder
1. real wander
• imbalance in the rotor Mass
• In perfectly balanced Gimble
• Uneven, rotor, bearing fiction

2. Apparent wander.
• Earth rate as the direction gyro indicator is aligned with the magnetic north Hence when
the Earth rotate the gyro axis shift from the north pole and has to be realligned called as
apparent wander 15° sign of latitude

3. Transport wander
As a gyroscope is transported, the Earth rate increases or decreases is called transport
wander
Directional gyro indicator DGI
• It gives direction information
• it uses horizontal axis gyro
• It uses tied gyro
• Principal, Rigidity and precision ( 2 gimble 1 degrees of freedom)
• Rpm 12000
• Air driven gyro limitation 55degree pith and roll
• Electric driven 85degree pitch and roll
Uses caging device
• synchronise the gyro
• Prevent the Thoppil
• Re errect the gyro after topple
Latitude Nut
• It compensates for the apparent drift
• It provides the correction for the latitude for which it is set
• It is done in the workshop
• It real wander
• It use’s property precession
Artificial Horizon

• it uses vertical axis earth gyro

• Principle is rigidity and precession
• RPM 15000
• Two gimble and 2degree of freedom

Limitation
65° pitch 85° roll

Errors
• acceleration - pitch up turn right
• deceleration - pitch down turn left

Turning errors
Turn coordinator
• It indicates the rate of turn of the aircraft
• It uses rate gyro
• Horizontal axis
• Principle precession only
• 1degree of freedom 1 gimble
• Rpm 4500

Error
• rotor over speed instrument over-read
• Rotor under speed instrument under-read

Slip indicator
• it indicates whether the turn is balanced or not
• slip it is the condition in which aircraft turns more than required and gravitational force is
exerted more than centripetal force
in this condition aircraft height is lost and radius of turn decreases

• skid it is the condition in which aircraft turns less than required Centripetal force is more
than gravitational force aircraft gains height
INS inertial navigation system
• it works on the law of inertia and newtons third law
• It is a self dependent system which gives acceleration of the aircraft, velocity ,distance
gone, distance to go ,time elapsed and ETA
• It consist of a accelerometer integrator and a computer
• The accelerometer detect the acceleration of the aircraft, which is integrated with the time
to give velocity and again, the velocity is integrated with time to get displacement
• As the computer knows the distance between the departure and the destination, the time
can be calculated

The platform is a metallic device which is used to keep the accelerometer earth level
• platform will take 25 to 30 minutes to ALLIGN

ERRORS
• BOUNDED
• UNBOUNDED
• INHERENT
IRS inertial reference system
• the platform is mathematical instead of mechanical
• Ring laser gyros are used
• Gyroscope are attached with the aircraft casing
• Alignment time is reduced to maximum 10 minutes

ERRORS
LASERLOCK happens when frequency differ and the error output comes
Di ether motor is used to fix the laser lock
 Radio
• Electro magnetic wave it is the wave which forms when alternating current is passed
through a wire as the current flow is changing the polarity of the magnetic feild also
changes which produces a resultant wave having electric component and magnetic
component.
• plane of polarisation It is the plane of an electric field. If the transmitter is vertical then it
will transmit vertically polarised radio signals to receive the maximum strength.
Transmitter and receiver should be in the same plane of polarisation.
• polar diagram It is the transmission and reception property of a transmitter and receiver.
• phase comparison is to signal to be compared, must have same frequency in which one
signal has to be designated as a reference signal and other as a variable signal
• Both the singnals compared must yield positive result the two signals to be compared mus
to identify the zero phase of both the wave
• Radio waves propagate in a given medium in a speed of light in a straight line
• While propagating the radio waves gets reflected, refracted, defracted and attenuated
• Attenuation loss of signal strength with time.
Night effect
During the night time, the d Layer dissipates f1 an f2 forms single f layer . As a result, the
radiowave has to travel further before refracting to the surface. Due to this, the skip distance ,
the critical angle and the dead space will increase.

• if the frequency is increased, then just skip distance, dead space and critical angle will
increase
• If the frequency is decreased or level of ionisation is increased critical angle, dead space
and skip distance will decrease Kar
NDB/ADF -
Are the navigation equipments
Frequency
Adf- 190-1750 khz
NDB - 190- 450 khz
BAND - higher LF AND LOWER MF
PRINCIPLE- bearing by loop theory
• Their are antennas placed inside the adf loop and sense which sence the voltage (emf)
and the maximum EMF generated
• The loop antenna suffers from 180 degree ambiguity when it is unwble to tell the aircraft is
going towards the station or away from the station
• To resolve this ambiguity the sence antenna is used
• NDB IS A ground equipment which transmits vertically polarised signals in all directions is
received by the ADF which sences maximum current and points towards the station .

ERRORS
• station interference - because of the limited number of frequencies are available in the
ndb if the same frequency is allocated to two station interference may happen to resolve
this a published protection range is made in which no two stations with the same
frequency must exists.
• Night effect
• Static interference ( thunderstorm error)- dangerous
• Coastal refraction
• Mountain effect
• Quadrantal error
• Lack of failure warning system 2nd dangerous
• Loop misalignment error
Range of the ndb
• Higher the transmission power more will be the range to 2x the range power to be
increased 4x
• NDB Gives more range over plain areas than hill
• Gives more range over the sea surface than land
types of ndb
• locator ndb - less power short range ( 10 - 25 nm)
• holding and homing ndb - medium range 25nm
• long range ndb <25 nm

BFO ( BEAT FREQUENCY OCCILATOR)

IT IS USED TO HEAR IDENTIFICATION

• ADF needle give relative bearing

• RMI head give QDM tail gives QDR
• QDR BEARING of the aircraft from the station (magnetic)
• QDM bearing of the station from the aircraft
• RBI bearing of the station from the nose of the aircraft clockwise
VOR ( Very high frequency Omni directional
range)
Band- VHF
Frequency -108 - 117 mhz
From 108 - 112 mhz is shared with localize
PRINCIPLE - Bearing by phase comparison

• VOR transmitter has two antenna and transmits two signals fixed and variable
• The fixed antannae transmitts reference signal of 30 hz FM in all directions with the same
phase of 0 degree
• Next phase the varible antannae variable signal of 30hz AM with a different phase in all
• their is a phase conparritor place in the aircraft which will compare phase of both the radio
waves
• phase comparison in any moment will be equal to the radial of the aircraft .

Errors
• site error
• Propagation error
• Beacon alignment
• Airborne equipment error
• Pilotage error
• Cone of confusion

Types of VOR
• TEST VOR
• TERMINAL VOR
• CVOR
• DVOR

Doppler VOR
• there is no rotating areal
• there are 50 areals encircling a central aireal at a diameter of 44ft
• the modulation is reversed
• the central areal transmits the refrence signal which is 30hz AM
• the 50 fixed areals in combination transmits variable signal which is 30 hz fm.
ILS

Is a instrument which helps the aircraft to the runway thresold by the precise landing
• has 3 components
1. localizer
2. Glide slope
3. Marker beacons
4. Runway lights
Localizer :-
Freq - 108 - 112MHZ(all odd 1st decimals)
Band - VHF
Principle is difference in depth modulation
• the tx areal is located in line with the rwy centerline 300m upwind end of the rwy
It transmits two overlapping lobes transmitted on the same freq but modulated differently
• Right lobe as seen by the pilot while making the app is modulated at 150hz and is called
blue sec Lobe to left is modulated at 90hz and is called yellow sec
• Diffrence in depth modulation will be 0 along extended rwy line
Range - 25 nm (6250)

GLIDE SLOPE
Freq - 329.3 - 335 MHZ (freq paired with localizer)
Band - UHF band
Principle - bearing by lobe comparison

• Glide path located on the one side of the wy approx. 150m from the centerline and 300 m
upwind.
• Transmissions are similar except the lobes are in vertical plane upper 90hz and lower
150hz

Vertical coverage
Marker beacons:
Marker beacons. They give range indications on approach
Om blue. - 2 dash per sec. - 400hz modulated - 3.5- 6 nm
Mm - amber - alternate dash and dor 4 per sec. - 1300 hz - 3500ft - 500t
IM - white - 6dot per sec - 3000hz - 1500ft - 250ft

These days me is paired with ils for range

Categories of ILS
Errors
• ILS multi-path interference due to large reflective objects (beam bends)
• Weather attenuation
• FM Broadcast (over spill)
• False glideslope
Radar
• It is an equipment used to detect and range the target
• There are two types of radar, primary and secondary radar
• Primary radar projects beam of energy forward When this energy hits the target. Some of
the energy will reflect back to the antenna by calculating the time as the speed is known
as distance can be calculated
1. principle of echo(range) and searchlight(bearing)
2. No info from target
3. Tx and RX at same place
4. Communivation one way
5. Exchange of info takes place in single pulse
6. Prone to external disturbance.(clutter)
Two types of primary radar - pulse and continuous
• secondary radar it takes information from transmitter(interrogator) and
receiver(transponder)
1. Needs info from target
2. Tx and rx at both ends
3. Communication both ways
4. Pair of pulses
5. Free from external disturbance.
It works on interrogator and transponder
• pulse width time elapsed between the start of one pulse and end of pulse
• PRI (pulse recurring interval)t is the time interval between the start of one pulse to the
start of another pulse
• PRF number of pulse per second
• PRI AND PRF Are inversely proportional
• Maximum range is a function of PRF
• MINIMUM RANGE IS A FUNCTION OF PULSE LENGTH
• azimuthal ( horizontal) resolution is determined by the beam width
• If the range of the radar has to be 2x the power has to be increased
by 16x
DME
Distance measuring equipment (secondary radar)
It measures the slant range of the aircraft from the station
Frequency - 962-1213 MHz
UHF frequency

• DME transmits double pulse of energy in all directions provided a ground station is in line
of sight . it will receive the signals and re-transmit them in all directions
• airbone equipment receives the re-transmitted signals. Calculate the time as the speed is
known, distance can be calculated.

• to ensure the aircraft doesn’t lock on to the signals reflected by the ground or terrain
signals are re-transmitted in a different frequency. Hence it is a secondary radar.
• To prevent the Equipment in one aircraft locking on to the signals of another aircraft, the
modulation sequence is used are different by each aircraft
• with a difference of 63 mhz
• to ensure the aircraft signals coming from the ground
the signals are transmitted in a different frequency
• swamping it will break the lock of the weak signals coming
From the aircraft and lock on to the strong signals coming from aircraft

Search mode and scan mode -

• in this interogator (transitter will transmit high pps of 150
lock on mode
• The interrogator will transmit the average of
20 PPS
• The ground station can reply to only 2700 PPS at a time
• The beacon saturation is 100 aircraft
• if more than 100 aircraft, trigger the station then swamping takes place
• swamping it will break the lock of the weak signals coming
From the aircraft far away and lock on to the strong signals coming from aircraft nearby
• if no response is received during scan mode for 100 seconds the interrogator goes into
the standby mode .
• if signals are blocked by the terrain then the interrogator will go into the memory mode
and maintain the lock for 10 to 15 seconds
• Range - 200 - 300 NMs
• Slant range error DME gives slant range instruction of true range.
• Which means when the aircraft is above the station It gives height of the aircraft instead of
zero
SSR
Secondary surveillance radar
Frequency - 1030, MHz ground interrogators
1090. MHz aircraft transponder
SSR uses transponder in the aircraft and interrogator in the ground which communicate with
each other by a code assigned by ATC when transponder send out this code and additional
information by the transponder type

MODE A - identification only

MODE C - IDENTIFICATION AND ALTITUDE accurate upto +-50ft
4096 Codes
MODE S - track, identification altitude, FMS information has 16 million codes and shows,
altitude, accurate upto + -25 feet
• ATC will ask you squawk. Ident
• Errors - fruiting( more ssr station close)
Garbling (two aircraft close in one ssr vicinity)
Tcas
• it is a instrument which gives audio and visual alert for proximate traffic
• Frequency- 1030 & 1090
• Working aircraft equipment consists of interrogators and transponder airborne equipment
connect with each other to generate traffic advisory and resolution advisory
• Range- 25nm
• tcas 1 - traffic advisory
• TCAS 2 - IT gives traffic advisory
as well as resolution advisory
• preventive RA - it prevents conflict
rather than resolving them
Corrective RA - it gives corrective
Alert to resolve the conflict
• tcas alert will superceed atc advisory
• Traffic advisory is issued
prior to 40 to 45 secs before impact resolution advisory is issued 20 to 25 seconds before
impact
AWR
• it is a primary radar which works on the echo and search Principle
• Frequency 8 to 10 GHz or 9375 MHz
• Band - SHF
• it is used to give the information of the weather ahead as Well as navigation
• it DetectS the size of the droplet and reduce the area of potential turbulence
• It also determines the cloud height toP and the cloud base by tilting the beam up and
down
• The radar beam is produced by the antenna in the nose of the antenna which can be
parabolic or flat plate
• Map mode it is used in a larger area 50 to 60 nautical miles. Fan shaped beam is used
• Man Mode it covers large distance, 70 to 150 nautical miles it uses conical shaped beam
• WEA MODE it gives information of the weather on the takeoff path range 25 nautical miles
• Weather radar is stabilised, the pitch and Roll by
• Since AWR uses super high frequency which can be harmful for the living beings hence
AWR CANNOT BE USED ON THE GROUND, EXCEPT FOR THE WEATHER MODE ON
THE RUNWAY

Black very light or no returns. less thn .7mm

Green light returns. 0.7 - 4mm
Yellow med returns. 4-12mm
Red. strong returns. greater thn 12mm
Magenta turbulence. due to intense rainfall
Cat and dry snow is not detected
Cloudtop elev angle = tilt angle - ½ beam width
Cloudbase elev angle = tilt angle + ½ beam width
Relative ht = elev angle * range * 100
Beam width = 70*wavelength/ antenna dia in cm
Radio altimeter
It is a primary radar which gives true height of the aircraft above the ground
Frequency - 4200 to 4400 MHz
Principle - FMCW (frequency modulated continuous wave)
Range - 2500 feet
• aircraft transmits a continuous wave continuously changing frequency witin 4200 to 4400
mhz
• Transmitted frequency received after getting reflected by the ground
• The change of frequency corresponds to the time which is computed with the speed and
gives the range
• Maximum range given is 2500 feet from the landing gears
ERROR - MUSHING ERROR
 GPWS
Ground proximity warning system
It is the radio instrument which gives audio, alert and warning when aircraft comes close
proximity to the ground
Inputs
• radio altimeter
• Vertical speed indicator
• Landing gear
• Flaps
• Glide slope
• Angle of attack( egpws)

Mode Hazard Envelope Alert Warning

Mode 1 Excessive rate of descent 50 to 2450ft Sink rate Whoop whoop pull up

Mode 2 Excessive Terrain closure 790 to 1800ft Terrain Terrain Whoop whoop pull up

Mode 3 Negative rate of claim after 50 to 700 ft Dont sink Whoop whoop pull up
Take off and go around

Mode 4 Unsafe undercarriage 500 to 700ft Too low gear Whoop whoop pull up
4a - ldg gear up Too low flap
4b - flap up

Mode 5 Glide slope more than 1/2 Below 500 ft Glide slope No warning
Scale deflection

Mode 6 Decision Height Minimums

EGPWS - enhanced ground proximity warning system

Mode 7 Wind shear Below 1500 ft Wind shear

GPS
Global positioning system
It is an instrument which gives position by measuring time from the satellite to the receiver as
the speed is known distance can be calculated hence the distance information from minimum
of 3 satellites to locate the position of the observer by the process called triangulation
• their are 6 orbits 5 satellites total 32 satellites
• avg height 20800 km
• 27 operational 5 standby
• Orbits are inclined 55 degrees to the equator with orbital time of 12 hours.
• Minimum satellite for 3-D fix is 4
• Minimum satellite for 2d fix is 3
• The receiver in the aircraft is installed in the top of the fuselage

GPS has three segments

1. space segment
• Each Satellite has three atomic clocks which transmits PRN code, pseudo random code
on L1 an L2 UHF band
• L1 - 1575.42 MHZ ( Civilian)
• L2 - 1227.6 MHZ ( MILITARY )
• PRN consists of satellite help, satellite Clock error, satellite position
2. Control segment.
• it consist of the master control station, monitoring station and antenna.
• The monitoring station checks the malfunction of the satellite ,clock time and satellite
position
3. User segment.
• it uses theinformation coming from the satellite for the navigation purpose
Almanac data
It consist of information of every satellite, which is used for Fast identification
Time taken by it. It’s 12.5 minutes.

GPS ERRORS.
• Ephemeris Error.
• Satellite Clock Errors.
• Ionospheric Propagation errors.
• Tropospheric Propagation Errors.
• Receiver Noise Errors
• Multi-Path Reception Errors.
• Geometric Dilution Of Precision Errors (GDOP).
• Aircraft Manoeuvre Errors.
• Selective Availability Errors (S/A).

RAIM
Receiver autonomous integrity monitoring
For 3-D fix six satellite are required and for 2-D fix five satellites are required
Tech
Aerofoil shape capable of producing lift
Chord line it is the line joining from trailing edge to the leading edge
Wing tip chord the chord line at the wing tip
Root chord the chord line at the wing root
Mean chord average chord length
Wingspan It is the distance between wingtip to wingtip
Aspect ratio span divided by mean chord
Wing area chord x span

Chamber it is the distance between surface of the wing to the chord line
Mean chamber line line joining trailing edge to the leading edge which is equidistant from
upper and lower surface
Centre of pressure It is a point through which all the aerodynamic forces is considered to act.
It is the function of camber coefficient of lift and angle of attack
AS THE ANGLE OF ATTACK INCREASES, CP MOVES FORWARD, AND THIS IS MAXIMUM
JUST BEFORE STALL
• in chambered Aerofoil CP moves between 30 to 40% of the chord
• In a symmetrical aerofoil it remain fixed at 25% of the chord
• CP is most forward at CL max

Aero dynamic Centre The pitching moment remains constant at angle of attack
• Leading edge Stagnation point
• it is a point where the airflow hitting the wingtip is brought to complete rest At this point,
the flow velocity is zero and the positive pressure is maximum.
• Leading edge, stagnation point the airflow separates from the top flo and the bottom flo

Boundary layer
• it is the layer of air close to the aerofoil it can be laminar or turbulennt
Laminar boundary layer
• it exist before the transition point
• It is a smooth steady thin airflo
• loose skin r friction drag
Turbulent boundary layer
• It exist after transition, Pt
• It will be turbulent
• It is un steady, thick flow
• high skin fiction drag
Transition point
It is a point where the laminar flow changes into the turbulent flow
• Adverse pressure gradient
• beyond the transition point the flow, velocity decreases, and the pressure increases This
causes adverse pressure gradient
• Causes flow separation and more form drag
Trailing edge, stagnation point
• due to skin friction and adverse pressure gradient the boundary layer doesn’t have
sufficient kinetic energy The air will stop moving at the trailing edge

Separation point
It is a point where boundary layer will separate from the wing
Lift
• Lift is it aerodynamic flow acts perpendicular to the air flow

• The wing is designed in such a way that it will be fat from the bottom and cambered from
the top when the air flow comes in contact with the wing due to the more surface area the
air will travel faster over the wing creating a low pressure area, and it will travel slower
below the wing creating high-pressure area creating a force high to low called as lift
• lift is generated due to the burnullis theorem which states that the sum of energy remains
constant through the Ideal flow
Drag
It is the aerodynamic force acts parallel to the relative Airflow opposite to the flight path
1. induced drag it is the byproduct of the lift which is formed by the wing tip vortices which
causes induced down wash
Wing tip vortices whenever lift is produced pressure differential, tries to equalise at the
wingtip which creates the movement of the air downwards, upwards and Inward
• as the indicated air speed decreses vortices increases
• Lift increases vortices increases
• Weight increases vortices increases
• Angle of attack increases vortices increases
2. Parasite drag. It is due to the speed of the aircraft.
• skin friction drag it is due to the viscosity of the air . When the boundary layer comes in
contact with the aerofoil, it creates fiction more the surface area more will be skin friction
drag
• Form drag it is as per the frontal area of the aerofoil and it is also due to the pressure,
differential trading edgage and leading edge stagnation Point
• Interference drag it is due to the interference of the joints and the separate parts of the
aircraft, such as landing gear
L/D RATIO
• It is the aerodynamic efficiency of the aircraft at particular angle of attack
• As the angle of attack increases, coefficient of lift and coefficient of drag increases
• Optimum angle of attack is 4° which gives best L/D RATIO AND BEST ALL-ROUND
PERFORMANCE OF THE AIRCRAFT
• landing gear extendedL/D ratio decreases
• Increase the angle of attack above 4° L/D ratio decreases
• 1 to 15° flaps L/D ratio increases
• Landing flaps L/D ratio decreases

GROUND EFFECT
• During the takeoff and landing when the aircraft is within a height of half wingspan from
the ground Wingtip vortices doesn’t happen completely and it get compressed on the
ground which gives cushioning effect and a floating effect to the aircraft
• aircraft is in ground effect. Static pressure error increases (position error) which causes
instrument to be unreliable

Stall
It is caused by the boundary layer separation due to the insufficient kinetic energy in the air
flow and high adverse pressure gradient
• as the angle of attack increases, adverse pressure gradient also increases, and the
separation point moves forward towards the leading Edge.
• At Clmax separation point is towards the leading edge And any further increase in the
angle of attack will cause air flow to break down. During the stall centre of pressure moves
back.
• critical angle of attack. It is the air angle of attact at which a air flow over the wing will
break down
Vso it is the stall speed of the aircraft in landing configuration
Vs1 it is the stall speed in clean configuration
• forward Cg stall, speed, increase
• Landing gear down, stall, speed, increase
• Ice formation on the Wing stall speed, increase
• weight increases stall speed, increases

Low-speed stall
In the low speed stall The kinetic energy of the boundary layer decreases, and the air flow
separates from wing regardless of angle of attack
Deep Stall
When the Wing stalls, CP moves backwards in the swept back wing CP tends to remain
forward causing the aircraft to pitchup if the aircraft has hight T TAIL then the turbulent airflow
might come into the elevator reducing the effectiveness of the elevator
Hi speed stall
It is the speed above which shockwaves begins to form and the boundary line separates from
the wing
Jet engines
It works under newtons second law and third law
F = MA
Mass and acceleration inversely proportional to each other
If the jet engine lessr mass of air is injected and accelerated quickly for that quick action/
acceleration. There is a quick reaction force called as thrust. It has a brayton cycle at a
constant pressure

IGV - intake guide vanes

NGV- Nosal guide vanes. KE+PE+HE = ME A320 CEO - 5:1
A320 NEO - 12.2:1
EGV - exhaust guide vanes

Brayton cycle
It has five stages
Intake
• In the air is inducted into the jet engine in such a way that it is turbulent force and Laminar
through IGV Turn after it is byfageted into a bypass air and to core air
• the bypass air usually exits through exhaust without any compression and combustion
• core air goes through the compression and combustion
• the bypass ratio is the ratio of air going through the bypass and through the core
• The bypass ratio of
• Boeing 737 new generation is 5:1 hello
• Airbus A320,CEO= 5:1

Compressor
• compressor are used to compress the air to a predetermined value before passing it into
the combustion chamber
• air is compressed for better ignition
• The kinetic energy of the air is increased by rotor impeller at its diffused into static energy
by rotor diffusion
• Low pressure compressor and high-pressure compressor are used to compress the air in
axial of low compressor 35:1 compression is achieved

Uses of compressed air

• cabin pressurisation
• anti icing system
• Pressurisation of fuel tank
• Pneumatic system

Compressor stall
• a compressor is designed to operate in extreme heat and RPM
• And any operation outside these limits may break the flow at the compressor blade
• compressor, blade stall is similar to Wing stall
• It happens due to the turbulent intake inside the jet engines, abrupt aircraft manuevre,
damaged compressor or turbine excessive fuel flow

Compressor surge
Surge happen when all compressor blades will stall means complete breakdown of air flow
through compressor. It usually accompanied with high EGT and a loud bang noise.

Combustion chamber
The compressed air is thereafter inducted into the combustion chamber, which is by factored
into primary secondary and tertiary air
• primary air primary air be 20% mixed with the fuel and ignited
• Secondary air it is being 20% which is used to produce swirled to stop and stabilise
flame propagation
• Tertiary air it is 60% which is used to cool down the combustion chamber

Types of combustion chamber

[Link] annular it has individual flames placed around the engine
[Link]
• it uses the whole area between compressor and turbine
• simple to manufacture
• Light weight
• More efficient

Turbine
• What is the rotating assembly that converts kinetic energy to potential energy and heat
energy into the mechanical energy
• The power absorbed by the turbine drive, the compressor and the fan
• LPT drives LPC and HPT DRIVES HPC
• turbines and compressor, or attach with metallic shaft called spool
• is a turbine gas velocity initially increases, then decreases. Pressure decreases and
temperature decreases.

Exhaust
• it consist of exhaust vane jet pipe and propelling nozzle
• The main purpose, of the exhaust is to guide the exhaust gases in the correct direction at
optimum velocity
Stability
• It is the tendency of an aircraft to return to a steady state after being disturbed by an
external force with Out any control input given by the pilot .
• More the stability less manoeuverability

Longitudinal stability
It remains positive in which the aircraft tends to acquire its flight path after being disturbed due
to gust or external factor
Neutral longitudinals stability
The aircraft has neither the tendency to return to the original state nor it continues to
displacement
Negative longitudnal stability
aircraft continues to deviate in the direction of displacement
Contributing factor of longitudnal stability
• tail plane
• Centre of gravity
• Wing area
• high lift devices
• Power

Directional stability
• It is a tendency of an aircraft to return to its flight path around the vertical axis .
• Directional stability is achieved by dorsal fin and ventral fin.
• Dorsal fin These are placed on the top of the fuselage and provides directional, static
stability and lateral static stability
• Ventral Fin these are placed below the fuselage and increase directional stability, but
decrease lateral stability
• in the modern day aircraft, dorsal fin are more preferred

Lateral stability
It is around the longitudinal axis of the aircraft
HAs positive negative and neutral stability

Dutch Roll
• It is the roll yaw in opposite direction
• It exist when the directional stability is less than the lateral stability
• When the aircraft side slips to the right of the angle of attack of the right wing increases,
the right wing will lift off with a strong lateral stability due to this induced drug also
increases on the right wing, which causes yaw to the right. This causes dutch roll.
Adverse aileron yaw
When the aircraft turns to the right, the right ailerons moves up and left aileron move down
due to which more lift is generated from the left wing. And the left wing moves up and the
aircraft starts to roll to the right. As a result, more induced drug is produced on the left wing
and a craft and the aircraft starts to yaw to the left. It is called as advance aileron Yaw
Differential aileron
In this the up going aileron move through a larger angle, than the down going aileron. This
increases drag on the up going aileron and reduces drag in the down going aileron due to this
drag is balanced.
Frise aileron
an aircraft wing control surface designed with its leading edge extending forward of its axis of
rotation so that when the aileron's trailing edge is raised, the leading edge extends below the
bottom surface of the wing. help damp down adverse yaw.
Lift augmentation devices
Flaps
Flaps
• These are the high lift and high drag devices which increases lift and drag as per the
requirement
• These are the high lift and high drag devices which increases lift and drag as per the
requirement
• Deploying the flaps at a smaller angle(t/o flaps) decreases the takeoff speed, less
runway required, increases Wing area and camber, decreases, tall speed, increases climb
angle.
• deploying the higher degree of flaps(landing flaps)
• it will increase the drag Hence the aircraft will sink faster.
• Decrease the landing speed.
• Decrease the floating period
• it will decrease landing distance required
plain flaps
• These are the flaps which are attached to the back of the Wing when extended their
• Deploying the flaps at a smaller angle(t/o flaps) decreases the takeoff speed, less
runway required, increases Wing area and camber, decreases, tall speed, increases climb
angle.
• deploying the higher degree of flaps(landing flaps)
• it will increase the drag Hence the aircraft will sink faster.
• Decrease the landing speed.
• Decrease the flute period
• it will decrease landing distance required

plain flaps
• These are the flaps which are attached to the back of the Wing when extended their pivot
down
split flaps
• These are the flaps which deflect from the lower surface of the wing
• It produces more lift and more drag as well
Slotted flap
• when extended, it creates a slot between the flap and increases Wing camber
• And by opening a slot, the air from the bottom of the wing flows through the slot to the
upper surface
• Which re-energise boundary layer which results more lift less drug
Fowler flaps
• these are the flaps with multiple slots for series of slots
• When the Fowler flaps are extended it creates lift re-energise the boundary layer and
increases little drag as well
kruger flaps (leading edge flaps)
When the Kroger flaps are deployed it increases the camber and doesn’t form any slot

Slats and slots

• these are the small auxiliary aerofoil which are at the leading edge of the wing
• When the slats are depl slots are formed from which the venturi effect takes place and the
air below the wing starts go above the wing which re energise the boundary layer as a
result it increases the lift delays the stall

Spoilers
• These are the flat plte structure fitted on upper side of the wing used to increase the
drag ,decrease the lift
• When both the spoulers are sre operating together it works as a speed brake
• When differential spoiler are used, it provides lateral control and it prevents adverse
aileron yaw
 INS IRS

1. It uses conventional gyroscope 1. it uses Ring laser gyro.

2. It uses Mechanical platform 2. It uses mathematical platform
3. gyroscope are mounted on the platform 3. Gyroscope are strapdown to the aircraft
4. Alignment time, 25 to 30 minutes casing
5. Error bounded and bounded and inherent 4. Alignment time, maximum 10 minutes
5. Error laser lock(either Motor)
ADAPT
CRM
Decision making

1. problem related to pax involve cabin crew

Pilot to acess the situations from lead crew

1. load distribution
2. Dont try to overload
3. Skill and duty assignment
4. Getting information
5. Decision Making
Prioritisation-
AVIATE-NAVIGATE-COMMUNICATE
1. AVIATE - to fly the a/c appropriately in given stn
2. Navigate - be situationally aware know ur psn
3. Comunicate - ATC communications

Situation-

1. order of the suggested task aviate navigate and communicate

2. Workload management assign duties related to pax to cc or to the lead cc
trust in the training provided by the company to various things
Keep a check and cross check

How to improve decision making

discision to alt - fuel calculation
Problem diagnose - go to root cause
Data collection- engine - engine parameters, cc for visual check
Option generation - think about all possible solutions
DONT GET FIXATED
• decisions must be based on discussion among the crew (cc,crew,engineer)
• Delay in departure- before boarding the flight take opinion from all cc

Option generation
1. risk assessments - threats to continue the flight to land in unsafe AD
if relateted to pax dont forget to involve lead cc
• decision common decision after mutual discussion
• Discuss the fact and the threats
decision should be addressed to crew directly

3. situational awareness (yourself and crew)

• system awareness
1. stay proactive

• dont review your decision - unless new situation added

eg review when something happens like pax fainted
•

• system awareness
1. stay proactive

Dont review the decision unless new situation arises

Leadership- to lead the crew from front proactive discussion
• And for wrng decisions taken by PIC -
• YOU NEED TO BE ASSERTIVE
• Shouldn’t be complying all the time
• use the authority and assetiveness at times
• Confident to make the responsibility of implementation of procedure
• Maintain SOP
1. FOLLOW. SOP IF CREW IS NOT
2. Encourage to follow sop
3. Stay confident with ur decision
4. Keep the crew up to date and keep them informing about situation

GOOD LEADERSHIP
1. AUTHORITIES and assertivness
2. Maintain standards
3. Planning and coordination
• planning ahed of the aircraft
• Avoid confusion
• Distribute workload
• Ensure task completion efficiently

Cooperation -
Team building -
Maintain work in a team
If somebody is not becoming part of a team encourage him/her by facts that
affects safety
• Shouldn’t be complying all the time
• use the authority and assetiveness at times
• Confident to make the responsibility of implementation of procedure
• Maintain SOP
Considering others-

Always believe in the conflict resolving

• if u have difference in the opinions work on conflict resolving
• Adapt a firm and fair approach to deal with the conflict
SUMMARY
DECISIONS MAKING
PROBLEM DIAGNOSIS
Option generation
Risk assessment
Combined decision conclusive
Dont change the decision unless new situation arises
Stay proactive stay ahed o aircraft
Anticipation
Time awareness
Be ready for future events
Maintain situation awareness
Keep other crew updated

Leadership
Use the authority and assertive
If there no compliance of sop / checklist

Planning and coordination

Team work

Cooperation
Consider others if required
Conflict resolving

Work load management

Don’t take all load
• aviation knowledge 50mins
• Cognitive 30 mins
• Fast 3 min 2 round
• Conflict resolution
• Coordination test
• Crm 40 questions 40nabq
• A
1. How many airplanes did u see in the mission
Ans . according to video

• what does atc refer to the 2nd waypoint

ans. 1 commtwr 2 factory 3 power station
• select the correct cockpit configuration
Ans refer pic fighter layout

• where were the helicopter located

ANS

• how many voices did u hear

ANS 3 helicopter 4 voices 2 helicopter 3 voices

• identify the final waypoint

Ans power station

• red light
Ans 2 - 3 times usually if not in in waypoint then definitely 2 times
Introduction
If you were Mohammed Saheb introducing yourself in an IndiGo Airlines
interview with the background you provided, you could say:

"Namaste, and thank you for the opportunity. I am Mohammed Saheb, hailing
from the vibrant city of Bhubaneswar in Odisha. I completed my civil engineering
degree in 2018 and subsequently honed my skills as an apprentice at PWD
Jharsuguda.

However, my true passion soared to the skies, leading me to GATI Flying School
in 2019. The journey culminated in the completion of my CPL in 2023, logging
185 hours of flight time in Cessna 172 and 152. For advanced multi-engine
training, I pursued an enriching experience with Carver Aviation, mastering the
P68 C aircraft.

Having been nurtured in a family dedicated to public service, my father's retired

IPS status has instilled in me a deep sense of discipline and order. I am blessed
with two elder sisters who have established their own happy families, and my
mother is the heart of our home.

Beyond the cockpit, I find joy in sports, particularly badminton, running, and the
invigorating gym routine. Staying fit and energetic is pivotal for me. My love for
travel knows no bounds, and exploring new destinations feeds my soul.

Growing up around airports due to my father's postings has not only fostered my
love for flying but also endowed me with a remarkable adaptability. I've had the
privilege to traverse various cities and towns, making new friends and enriching
my life experiences.
The legacy of a police background has embedded a strong sense of discipline
and method in my approach to tasks. Reliability, punctuality, and thriving in a
team environment come naturally to me.

One of my greatest sources of inspiration is my cousin, a dedicated junior first

officer here at IndiGo. Witnessing his relentless pursuit of his CPL, overcoming
challenges with grit and determination, keeps my own spirit soaring.

I am truly excited about the prospect of contributing to the dynamic team here at
IndiGo Airlines. The opportunity to serve with a company that values dedication
and excellence aligns perfectly with my own aspirations. Thank you."
INDIGO
IndiGo is India’s largest and most preferred passenger airline and amongst the
fastest growing airlines in the world.
IndiGo is amongst the fastest-growing low-cost carriers in the world. IndiGo has
a simple philosophy: offer fares that are affordable, flights that are on time, and
provide a courteous and hassle-free travel experience across its unparalleled
network. With its fleet of 320+ aircraft, the airline is operating 1900+ daily flights
and connecting 80+ domestic destinations and will soon further grow its footprint
to 30+ international destinations

We are Indian at heart, international in ambition and are continuing to expand

our operations.
Facts and Figures
• Domestic market share of 63.2% (in June 2023)
• 7th largest airline by daily departures
• Fleet of 320 aircraft including 166 new generation A320 NEOs, 20 A320 CEOs,
39 ATRs, 87 A321 NEOs, 2
A321 freighter and 2 B777i
• 1900+ Daily Flights
• 500+ million happy customers
• Awarded with “World’s Youngest Aircraft Fleet” in the 100+ aircraft category by
ch-aviation
• Ranked as the 5th most punctual mega airline in the world by the Official
Aviation Guide (‘OAG’)
• Awarded as the “Best Low-Cost Airline in India & South Asia” by SkyTrax in
2023, for the 13th time in a row

Introducing daily non-stop flights from our newly launched destinations Kanpur,
Gwalior, Bareilly and Jabalpur.
Nairobi, Jakarta, Tbilisi Baku tashkent and almaty
 Go IndiGo
"On Time, Every Time"
J
Indigo logo symbolises - Values and Mission

Founders
Key People
The airline was founded as a private
company by Rahul Bhatia (51.1%) of • Founders : Rahul Bhatia and Rakesh
InterGlobe Enterprises and Rakesh Gangwal Gangwal.
(48.8%) in 2006.
• CEO : Pieter Elbers

• President and COO : Wolfgang Prock-

First To Occur
Schauer
• July 2006 : 1st A320-200 received
• Chairman : Dr. V. Sumantran
• 4th Aug 2006 : 1st Operation from
• M.D. : Rahul Bhatia.
Delhi to Imphal via Guwahati.
Parent Company:
• 1 Sept 2011 : 1st International Flight b/w
InterGlobe Aviation Ltd.
Delhi to Dubai.

• March 2016 : Received 1st A320Neo

InterGlobe Aviation Ltd. is publically traded
• Nov 2017 : Received 1st ATR72-600.
under NSE : Indigo, with market
• Dec 2019 : 1st Indian Airline to operate capitalization of about 23,00,000 lakhs (as
1500 flights daily. of May 2023).
Services
• 31 Dec 2019 : 1st Indian Airline to have
fleet size of 250+ aircraft.

• 1 Feb 2023 : Inducted B777-300ER • Being a Low-fare carrier, Indigo offers

from Turkish Airlines on Wet lease. only economy class seating.
Pillars of Indigo
• To keep fares low, does not provide
1. Offering low fares
complimentary meals, though it has
2. Being on-time buy-on-board in-flight meal
programme.
3. Delivering a courteous and hassle-free
experience • No in-flight entertainment.

• 'Hello 6E', in-flight magazine published

by Indigo is available.

• For passengers willing to pay higher

History fares, services like, pre-assigned seats,

• July 2006 : 1st A320-200 received

INDIGO multiple cancellation and priority check-
in.
• 4th Aug 2006 : 1st Operation from
• In Sept 2019, with tie-up with SonyLiv,
Delhi to Imphal via Guwahati.
an on-demand video app for providing
• Dec 2010 : Replaced Air India from 3rd its passengers entertainment in-flight
position. (1. Kingfisher and 2. Jet and at airport.
Airways) Basic Knowledge
• Jan 2011 : Completing 5 years of
service, was permitted to operate
• Headquarters : Gurugram, Haryana
International Flights
• Operational Bases : 7 (Main : Delhi, Additional bases :
• 2011: Ordered 180 A320. Fleet Size
Bengaluru, Chennai, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Mumbai and Kochi)
• Aug 2012 : Became Largest Airline in
• Destinations: 114 (78 domestic + 35 aboard) (Aug 2023)
India (6 years after stating operations).
Total Fleet size : 317
(Nairobi, Jakarta, Almaty[Kazakh] and Tbilisi[Georgia] are
• Aug 2015 : Ordered 250 A320Neo
new additions).
(largest order in aviation history).
• Primary Hub : IGI Airport, Delhi A320-200 : 21 (To be phased out)
• Oct 2019 : Ordered 300 A320 (breaking
its own previous record). • Market Share : 63% dom. (Largest airline in India by A320Neo : 168 (Largest operator)
passengers carried and fleet size, as of June 2023)
A321Neo : 87 (2nd Largest oper)
• Revenue : INR 559 Billion
ATR 72-600 : 39
• Fleet Size: 317 aircrafts

• Daily Flight Ops: 1900+

Cargo fleet - A321-200/P2F : 2
• Total No of Employees : 26,000+

Order backlog : >1000 aircrafts

Key Events

• 2012 : Became largest Indian Carrier by

Passenger market share.
Code Share Agreement Fleet Development
• 2015 : Company went Public.
A flight is operated by one airline(operating • June 2005 : ordered 100 A320 during
• Oct 2019 : Airbus delivered its 1000th
carrier), in which two or more airlines Paris Air Show.
A320Neo to Indigo.
publish and market the same flight under
• July 2006 : Received 1st A320.
• 2021 : Ranked 3rd most punctual their own designator and flight no.
globally. • Aug 2015 : Confirmed order of 250
Indigo codeshares with:
A320Neo
• 2023 : Best Low-Cost Airline in India
1. Air France
and South Asia“ by SkyTrax for 13th • Oct 2019 : Order of 300 A320Neo
time in row. 2. American Airlines family.

3. KLM • May 2023 : Inducted a 400 seater

B777-300ER from Turkish Airlines on
4. Qantas
wet lease.
5. Qatar Airways
• June 2023 : During Paris Air Show,
6. Turkish Airlines Ordered 500 A320Neo family valued at
US $55 B. (This is the largest order in
7. Virgin Atlantic
aviation history)
Approach plates
• read from left
• 1- ils
• 3- vor
• 5-ndb
PANS OPS
• IT includes that specified approach plates complies wirh the icao document 8168 vol2
• Pan ops 3 - it indicates that the holding speed as per specified icao document 8168,
volume2
• PAN OPS 4 -IT INDICATES THAT THE ACCELERATION SEGMENT CRITERIA IS
REMOVED AS PER ICAO DOCUMENT 8168, vol 2
 INDIGO QUESTION PAPER
1. 2D INSTRUMENT APPROACH- it is a 2D dimensional
approach procedure which utilizes lateral guidance only
{example – A VOR approach {NPA},NDB,DME and localizer
only approaches}.

2. 3D INSTRUMENT APPROACH- it is a 3D dimensional

approach procedure which utilizes both lateral and vertical
guidance {example- an ILS approach {PA},MLS,GLS}.

3. ACARS{aircraft communication addressing and

reporting system} –it is a digital system for transmission of
short messages between aircraft and ground stations via air
band radio or satellite.{a ping response indicates a healthy
ACARS communication}.ACARS messages are 3 types: ATC
message, AOC {aeronautical operational control },AAC
{airline administration control}.

4. ACCELERATION ALTITUDE – altitude at which the

aircraft transits from take- off speed {V2 +15/20} to climb
out speed .usually between 1000-1500ft.

5. ACCELEROMETER- it is an electro –mechanical device

that measures acceleration forces .forces can be static or
dynamic. used in INS, IRS, etc.

6. ACN{aircraft classification number}-it is a number

which expresses the effect of individual airplane on different
pavement. ACN should be less than or equal to PCN for an
a/c to operate on a particular pavement. ACN values are
found in Jeppesen manual under aerodrome general section
{airport data section}.
7. Adequate airport – it is an airport meeting the safety
requirements for take- off and landing for commercial and
non –commercial [Link] the expected time of use.:
• The aerodrome will be compatible with the
performance requirement landing weight and will be
available and equipped with services such as ATC,
communication, Nav-Aids, Refuelling etc.
• At least one let down aid {ground radar would also
qualify}will be available for an instrument approach.
8. ADS-B {Automated Dependant Surveillance –
broadcast}- it is a surveillance technology for tracking a/c .
The a/c determines its own position by using GNSS and
broadcasts it periodically via radio frequency. A means by
which aircraft, aerodrome vehicles and other objects can
automatically transmit and /or receive data such as
identification ,position and additional data, as appropriate
,in a broadcast mode via a data link. ADS-B consists of two
services:
• ADS-B-OUT-it periodically broadcasts information
{position ,altitude, velocity}through on-board
transmitter to the traffic control.
• ADS-B –IN –it is the reception by an aircraft of
TIS-B{traffic information service –Broadcast} which
provides weather reporting services like weather
reports, AIRMET, SIGMET,NOTAM or PIREP to the a/c .

9. ADS-C {Automated Dependant Surveillance –

contract}-a means by which the terms of an ADS-C
agreement will be exchanged between the ground system
and the aircraft ,via a data link, specifying under what
conditions ADS-C report would be initiated ,and what data
would be contained in the reports.
There are three types of contract:

• Periodic
• Demand
 • Event{like reporting point}

10. ALERT HEIGHT- it is the height above the runway

threshold based on the characteristics of the aeroplane and
it’s fail operational landing system. In operational use,
approach would be discontinued and a missed approach
initiated if a failure occurred in one of the redundant parts of
the automatic landing system or in the relevant ground
equipment above this height. But if a failure occurs below
the alert height it would be ignored and approach should be
continued to complete the automatic landing .If engine
failure or fire occurs on final segment above or below the
alert height and a/c ‘s automatic landing system is working
properly, then landing should be done.

11. ALPHA MAX – It is the maximum angle of attack {AOA}.

Going beyond this angle activates Alpha floor ,which is the
protection system that automatically engages TO/GA power.

12. ALTERNATE AERODROME- an aerodrome to which an

aircraft may proceed when it becomes either impossible to
proceed or to land at the aerodrome of intended landing
where the necessary services and facilities are available,
where aircraft performance requirement can be met and
which is operational at the expected time of use.
• T/O Alternate aerodrome at which an aircraft would be
able to land should this become necessary shortly after
T/O and it is not possible to use the aerodrome of
departure.
• En –route alternate- an aircraft would be able to land in
the event that a diversion between necessary while en
–route.
• Destination alternate- an alternate aerodrome where
aircraft would be able to land when it becomes either
impossible or inadvisable to land at the aerodrome of
intended landing .{note: the aerodrome from which a
 light departs may also be a en-route or destination
alternate aerodrome for that flight.}
13. ANHEDRAL - it is the downward inclination of the wing
.the wing tip is lower than the wing root, provides more
control effectiveness.

14. DIHEDRAL - it is the upward inclination of the wing.

the wing tip is higher than the wing root. provides more
lateral stability.{note: too much positive dihedral can cause
Dutch roll}.

15. ANTI-SKID BRAKE SYSTEM-the purpose of this

system is to sense when the wheels are locked i.e. not
spinning and to release the brake pressure through the
brake modulating/metering valve system to generate wheel
spin.(note: spin is required for braking efficiency}.

16. AOM{aerodrome operating minima}- to enable

scheduled, non scheduled and general aviation operators to
operate safely at an aerodrome under limiting weather
condition, AOM is established. Minimas are specified in term
of visibility and/or RVR for take- off and visibility/RVR for
landing . Two types {NORMAL AND RESTRICTED}.
• Normal AOM –applied by scheduled operators. these
are calculated based on latest information of airport
facilities ,procedures and obstruction clearance
requirements.
• Restricted AOM –consists of additives of height and
visibility to the normal AOM.
Conditions to use restricted AOM:
• Can be used by non-scheduled and general aviation
operators.
• By PICs till they have gained 100hrs of command
experience on type.
• By PICs when operating to an aerodrome with difficult
terrain.
Restricted AOM for T/O- operators shall not conduct T/O
below 500m RVR
Restricted AOM for landing –
R-AOM =N-AOM{MDA/DA}+100ft.
R-AOM=N-AOM{Vis/RVR}+400m.

17. APPROACH SPEED CATEGORIES- a grouping of aircraft

based on the ground speed of 1.3 times the stall speed at
landing configuration {vso}[Link] (Threshold speed)at
maximum gross weight.
• Category A- less than 91kts (small SE)
• Category B-91kts-121kts (small ME)
• Category C-121kts-141kts (airline jet)
• Category D-141kts-166kts (large jet/military jet)
• Category E – 166kts- 211kts (special military jet)

18. APPROACH BAN POINT- the point on the final approach

where the reported weather conditions at the runway must
meet the applicable minima so as to be able to meet
regulatory requirements for continuing an instrument
approach to land.

19. APV(APPROACH PROCEDURE WITH VERTICAL

GUIDANCE)- A performance based navigation (PBN)
instrument approach procedure designed for 3D instrument
approach.

20. ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE – it states that the upward

buoyant force that exerted on a body immersed in a fluid
,whether fully or partially submerged ,is equal to the weight
of the fluid that the body displaces and acts in the upward
direction at the centre of the mass of the displaced fluid.

21. ARTIFICIAL FEEL UNIT-it is a system required because

power –operated flying controls are irreversible .i.e. they do
not give feed back to the pilot any sensory information about
the control surface. To prevent this, these units are
designed to give control feel which is directly proportional
to the speed of the aircraft and to the amount of control
surface movement.

22. ATOW(ACTUAL TAKE –OFF WEIGHT)- The actual

weight of the aircraft at the holding point. Fuel burns during
taxi operation to the departure runway which in turn
reduces the gross weight of the aircraft . used for T/O
performance calculations.

23. AUTO THRUST- it allows a pilot to control the power

setting of an engine by specifying a desired flight
characteristics, rather than manually controlling the fuel
flow.

24. AWO(ALL WEATHER OPERATION)-Any surface

movement, take –off ,departure, approach or landing
operations in conditions where visual reference are limited
by weather conditions.

25. AWR(AIRBORNE WEATHER RADAR)-it is used to

provide pilots with information regarding weather ahead.
Cloud height and terrain ahead.

Principle-primary radar( search light principle for bearing

and echo principle for range).

Frequency-SHF band (9GHZ-10GHZ)

Working- radar antenna in the nose of the aircraft produces

a narrow beam (fan-shaped cosecant beam or long-range
pencil beam ). The radar energy is in a form of pulse. The
wave is reflected back from a drop or hail back to the radar.
The colour used in ascending order of intensity are
green,yellow,red and magenta.
Limitations –it cannot detect clear air turbulence and snow.

26. BALANCED FIELD- when TODA=ASDA, aircraft achieves

screen height over the end of the runway in all cases.
Determines the MTOW,V1 and Vr.

27. BY PASS RATIO-the ratio of the mass of the airflow

passing through the turbine (i.e total air intake ) to the mass
of the airflow passing through the engine core. (5:1 which
means 5 kg of air passing through the turbine for every 1 kg
of air passing through the engine core )

28. CABIN ALTITUDE- the pressure inside the cabin is

technically referred to as cabin altitude. It is irrespective
aircraft altitude.(oxygen requirement – pilot
10000ft/passengers 14000ft).

29. CANPA(Constant angle non-precision approach)-it

would allow the aircraft to be flown on a published descent
path from the FAF(final approach fix) to the DDA(H)(derived
decision altitude),which is a point where a pilot decides to
continue approach to land visually or initiate a missed
approach if visual reference not established with the
assurance that the aircraft will not descend below MDA(H)
or OCA(H) whichever is *DDA(H)- derived decision altitude
or height , it adds 50ft . to MDA(H).

30. CARBURETTOR- it is a device which meters correct

fuel-air mixture and supply same to the engine at all engine
speed and altitude. works on Bernoulli’s principle and
usually used in piston engines.

31. CDFA (Continuous descent final approach)- A

technique, consistent with stabilized approach procedures,
for flying the final approach segment of a non-precision
instrument approach procedure as a continuous descent,
without level –off from an altitude/height at or above the
final approach fix altitude /height to a point approximately
50ft . above the landing runway threshold or the point
where the flare manoeuvre should begin for the type of
aircraft flown
Benefits:
• Reduced risk of CFIT
• Better obstacle clearance
• Reduced noise
• Simplification of decision process
• Reduced fuel burn
• Passenger comfort
• Reduced work load

32. CEILING- the height above the ground or water of the

base of the lowest layer of cloud below 6000m
(20000ft)covering more than half the sky (4 Oktas or more).

ABSOLUTE CEILING-it is an aircraft’s maximum attainable

altitude/flight level at which the Mach number buffet and
pre-stall buffet occur co-incidentally .(ROC=0 ft /min)

SERVICE CEILING –the maximum operating altitude /flight

level which provides a safety margin below the absolute
ceiling (ROC piston engine =100ft /min /jet engine
=500ft/min).

AERODYNAMIC CEILING-Also known as COFFIN’S CORNER.

It is an altitude/ flight level where stall speed is equal to the
critical Mach no. at a given gross weight and G- force loading.

33. CFIT(Controlled flight into terrain)- it is an accident in

which an airworthy aircraft, under pilot control is
unintentionally flown into the ground or a mountain, or
water body, or an obstacle.
34. CG(Centre of gravity)- it is a point on the longitudinal
axis of the aircraft through which the total weight of the
aircraft will act.
Forward CG-
• Higher stall speed
• Increase in longitudinal stability
• Less controllability
Aft CG-
• Lower stall speed
• Decrease in longitudinal stability
• Higher manoeuvrability

35. CPDLC(Controller pilot data communication

(CPDLC)- means of communication between the controller
and the pilot using datalink for ATC [Link]
permits data link messages to be generated for all stages of
the flight. The messages have a fixed format defined within
the FMS.

36. CMV(Converted meteorological visibility)-

A value equivalent to an RVR which is derived from the
reported meteorological visibility, as converted in
accordance with specified requirements in the CAR
conditions where CMV cannot be used:-
• When RVR is reported
• For visual circle approaches
• For take–off
• For calculating any RVR minima below 800m

CMV is only to be used by pilots in the flight and it is not to

be used by dispatch.
CMV=Visibility X

Lighting day night

HAILS X 1.5 X 2.0

Any other light X 1.0 X 1.5
No lights X 1.0 NA

37. COFFINS CORNER-it is the altitude at or near which a

fast –fixed wing aircraft’s stall speed is equal to the critical
Mach number, at a given gross weight and G-force landing.
At this altitude it is very difficult to keep the airplane in
stable fight. It is also called as ‘Q’ corner.

38. COMMUNICATION FAILURE- If in VFR, condition the

aircraft shall continue to fly in visual meteorological
conditions, land at the nearest suitable aerodrome and
report its arrival by the most expeditious means to the
appropriate air traffic control unit.
If in IFR condition-
• Proceed according to the current flight plan,
maintaining the last acknowledgement assigned
cruising level for the portion of the route for which the
a/c has received clearance and thereafter at the
cruising level indicated in the current flight plan
• Arrange the flight so as to arrive as closely as possible
to his ETA
• Commence descent as nearly as possible to the
expected approach time last received or acknowledged
or if not then as nearly as possible to the ETA specified
in the flight plan.
• IFR flight plan in VMC conditions, then follow VMC
procedure.

39. CONTRA ROTATING PROPS-Aircraft equipped with

contra- rotating propellers , also referred to as CRP,
• Category A: Speed 90 knots or less.
• Category B: Between 91 and 120 knots.
• Category C: Between 121 and 140 knots.
• Category D: Between 141 knots and 165 knots.
• Category E: Speed 166 knots or more.
In cdfa the approach must be flown at adecent rate till DDA. with a corection not more than +-
300 ft
If the correction is made other than that then the approchbis considered as un stabilised
approch and go around has to be made

MORA ( MINIMUM OFF ROUTE ALTITUDE)

IT is the altitude which provides obrstaclw cleracncw 10 nm of the cetre line if the highest
obrstracle is less than 5000 ft it gives clerance of 1000 it is marked as suffix a nd 2000 ft fore
more than 5000 ft obstracle

Grid MORA
It is an area which is defined by lattitude and longitude
If more is written in green colour highest obstacle is 10000 ft or below
And magenta is 10000 ft or above( oxygen requirements)

If given in +- accuracy is doubtful

MOCA (MINIMUM OBSTRACLE CLEARANCE ALTITUDE ) T SUFFIX

it gives clerace from the obstracle and acceptible navigation coverage till 22nm frm the nav
aid

MEA ( MINIMUM ENROTE ALTITUDE)

it is the altitude which gives navigation coverage as well as obstracle clearance

MAA (MAXIMUM AUTHORISE ALTITUDE)

It is the highest altitude above which conflicting signal from the two navigation aids of same
frequency may come
RUNWAY LENGTH
TORA takeoff run available
From a pilot's point of view, Boeing and Airbus are two of the largest and most well-known
aircraft manufacturers in the world. While both produce high-quality airplanes, there are some
differences in their design philosophies and cockpit layouts.

1. **Cockpit Layout:** One noticeable difference is the layout of the cockpit. Boeing tends to
use a yoke (similar to a steering wheel) for control, while Airbus uses a side stick controller.
This is largely a matter of preference and doesn't affect the flying characteristics of the
aircraft.

2. **Flight Control Philosophy:** Airbus aircraft tend to have more automated systems and
protections in place, which are designed to assist the pilot in flying the aircraft. Boeing aircraft,
on the other hand, traditionally give the pilot more direct control and decision-making
authority.

3. **Philosophy of Handling Emergencies:** The two manufacturers have slightly different

approaches to handling emergencies. Airbus often emphasizes the use of specific procedures
and checklists, while Boeing may leave more decision-making to the pilot's discretion.

4. **System Integration:** Airbus aircraft have a high level of system integration, which
means that different systems communicate and work together more closely. Boeing aircraft
may have slightly more independent systems.

5. **Training and Transition:** Pilots who are transitioning from one manufacturer to the
other may need to undergo specific training to become proficient on the new type. This is
because there are differences in cockpit layout, system operation, and handling
characteristics.
6. **Aircraft Characteristics:** Each manufacturer's models have their own unique flying
characteristics. For example, Boeing aircraft may have a reputation for being more "hands-on"
and responsive, while Airbus aircraft are often described as more "fly-by-wire," meaning that
the pilot's inputs are interpreted by computer systems before being transmitted to the control
surfaces.

Remember, these are general trends and there can be exceptions depending on the specific
models and versions of aircraft produced by each manufacturer. Additionally, both Boeing and
Airbus continually innovate and adopt features from one another, so the differences may
evolve over time.
The ATR (Aerei da Trasporto Regionale) series of aircraft, such as the ATR 42 and ATR 72,
are regional turboprop aircraft designed primarily for short to medium-haul flights. One of the
reasons they typically operate at lower altitudes (below 25,000 feet) is due to their turboprop
engines.

Turboprop engines are most efficient at lower altitudes where the air is denser. As an aircraft
climbs higher, the air density decreases, which can lead to reduced engine performance.
Turboprops are designed to operate best in this denser air environment.

Additionally, regional aircraft like the ATR are not designed for long-haul, high-altitude cruising.
They are optimized for shorter routes with relatively quick turnarounds at airports, making
them well-suited for regional and short-haul operations.

Operating at lower altitudes also allows for more direct routing and quicker descents and
ascents, which can be advantageous for short-haul flights with multiple stops.

It's worth noting that specific altitude capabilities can vary based on factors such as aircraft
model, engine type, payload, weather conditions, and operational requirements set by airlines
or regulatory authorities. Always consult the aircraft's operational documentation and follow
recommended procedures for safe and efficient flight.
The Airbus A320neo (New Engine Option) and CEO (Current Engine Option) are both
variants of the popular A320 family of narrow-body, single-aisle airliners. The main difference
between the two lies in their engines and some associated technologies:

1. **Engines:**
- **A320neo (New Engine Option):** As the name suggests, the A320neo features new,
more fuel-efficient engines. These are the Pratt & Whitney PW1000G, CFM International
LEAP-1A, or International Aero Engines (IAE) V2500-A5 engines. The neo's engines offer
improved fuel efficiency, reduced emissions, and lower noise levels compared to the CEO
models.

- **A320ceo (Current Engine Option):** These are the earlier models of the A320 series,
powered by CFM International CFM56-5 or IAE V2500 engines. While reliable and widely
used, they are not as fuel-efficient as the newer engines found on the A320neo.

2. **Wingtip Devices:**
- **Sharklets:** Both A320neo and some later versions of A320ceo models can be equipped
with "sharklet" wingtip devices. These curved extensions at the end of the wings reduce drag
and improve aerodynamic efficiency, resulting in lower fuel consumption.

3. **Cabin Improvements:**
- Both the A320neo and A320ceo can have similar cabin configurations, but the newer
A320neo models might have additional interior enhancements based on specific airline
preferences.

4. **Range and Payload:**

 - The A320neo, due to its more fuel-efficient engines, generally has a slightly extended
range compared to the A320ceo. It can carry similar payloads over longer distances.

5. **Cockpit and Avionics:**

- The cockpit design and avionics systems are largely similar between the two variants. Both
feature advanced glass cockpits with similar avionics suites.

6. **Common Type Rating:**

- One of the advantages for pilots and airlines is that the A320neo and A320ceo share a
"common type rating." This means that pilots trained on one of these variants can easily
transition to flying the other with minimal additional training.

It's important to note that individual airlines may configure their aircraft differently, and the
specifics can vary depending on the airline's preferences and the specific models of the
aircraft they operate. Additionally, Airbus regularly updates and improves its models, so there
may be slight variations within each variant over time.

Sharklets and winglets are both aerodynamic devices attached to the tips of an
aircraft's wings to improve its aerodynamic performance and fuel efficiency. While they
serve similar purposes, there are some differences between the two:
Winglets:
• Design: Winglets are vertical extensions at the tips of the wings. They curve upwards and
are typically angled slightly outward from the wing.

• Function: Winglets reduce induced drag by controlling the airflow at the wingtip. They
work by minimizing the formation of wingtip vortices, which are a byproduct of lift
production. This leads to improved fuel efficiency.
• Applications: Winglets have been in use for a longer period and are found on various
types of aircraft, from small regional jets to larger commercial airliners.

Sharklets:
• Design: Sharklets are a specific type of winglet introduced by Airbus. They are larger and
have a distinctive blended, more curved shape, somewhat resembling the dorsal fin of a
shark.

• Function: Sharklets serve the same function as regular winglets, but due to their larger
size and optimized design, they provide even greater fuel efficiency improvements.

• Applications: Sharklets are a trademarked term used by Airbus and are primarily
associated with their A320 family of aircraft. They are a standard feature on newer
A320neo (New Engine Option) models.

In summary, while both winglets and sharklets serve the purpose of reducing drag and
improving fuel efficiency, sharklets are a specific type of winglet developed by Airbus with an
enhanced design for greater efficiency. Winglets, on the other hand, are a more general term
used to describe various types of wingtip devices used across different aircraft manufacturers.
After takeoff, an aircraft may experience a left-turning tendency due to a combination
of factors related to its design and aerodynamics:

• P-Factor: This is an aerodynamic effect that occurs when an aircraft's propeller is turning.
The descending blade of the propeller generates more lift and drag than the ascending
blade, causing a yawing moment to the left. This effect is more pronounced at high angles
of attack, such as during takeoff.

• Torque Effect: The engine's rotation creates an equal and opposite reaction, known as
torque. In a single-engine aircraft, this torque tends to roll the aircraft to the left. This is
countered by the ailerons, but the effect is still present, especially during the initial stages
of takeoff.

• Spiral Slipstream: The airflow behind a spinning propeller forms a rotating column called
the "spiral slipstream." This stream rotates around the fuselage and can exert a leftward
force on the tail, contributing to the left-turning tendency.

• Gyroscopic Precession: When the aircraft's nose is pitched up or down, there is a

gyroscopic effect caused by the spinning propeller. This can lead to a leftward yawing
moment.

• Asymmetric Thrust: If one engine produces more thrust than the other (in multi-engine
aircraft), there can be a yawing effect towards the side with less thrust. This can be a
factor during takeoff if engines are not perfectly matched in power.

Pilots are trained to anticipate and counteract these forces using the rudder, ailerons, and
other control surfaces. They apply right rudder input to counteract the left-turning tendency
and maintain straight flight. Additionally, the aircraft's design and trim settings can help
mitigate these effects.
It's important to note that the degree of left-turning tendency can vary depending on the
specific aircraft type, engine configuration, and other factors. Pilots are trained to be aware of
these tendencies and to apply the appropriate control inputs to maintain stable and controlled
flight.