1️⃣STATISTICS & PRACTICAL SKILLS
Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient
Use: Tests strength + direction of correlation between two variables.
Values:
o +1 = perfect positive
o 0 = no correlation
o –1 = perfect negative
Significance:
Compare calculated rs to critical value.
o If rs > critical value → significant correlation (p < 0.05).
Chi-Square Test (χ²)
Use: Tests whether there is a significant difference between observed and
expected frequencies.
Decision rule:
o If χ² > critical value → reject null hypothesis, difference is statistically
significant.
Correlation & TB/HIV Example
Test: Spearman’s rank.
Interpretation:
o Coefficient value closer to +1 or –1 = stronger correlation.
o Compare with critical value at 5% significance level.
Haemocytometer
Used to count cells and determine growth curves and exponential growth rate
constant (k).
2️⃣ECOLOGY, CONSERVATION & EVOLUTION
Key Ecology Terms
Entomology
Study of insects.
Population
All organisms of one species in a habitat.
Community
All different species interacting in a habitat.
Dendrochronology
Remove small sample at tree base; count growth rings (1 ring = 1 year).
Succession
Process of change in the species structure of a community over time.
Primary succession
Pioneer species colonise hostile environments.
When pioneers die → organic matter builds soil → increases water-holding
capacity → new species outcompete.
Why biomass of bacteria decreases
Death rate > birth rate
Predation
Nutrient depletion
Speciation
Sympatric Speciation
New species formed without geographical isolation, both populations remain
in same location.
Reproductive isolation from:
o Temporal differences (e.g., eggs laid at different times).
o Behavioural differences.
o Incompatible gametes.
o Mutations → genetic divergence.
Mutation in one parent acts as selection pressure.
Allopatric Speciation
Geographical barriers → no gene flow → genetic divergence.
Archaea
Domain of prokaryotes distinct from bacteria.
Features:
o No membrane-bound organelles
o Ether lipids in membranes
o Often extremophiles
o Unique rRNA sequences
Conservation & Biodiversity
Why destruction of wildlife reduces populations
Habitat loss
Reduced food availability
Increased predation
Niche disruption
Evaluating success of conservation
Species richness
Abundance estimates
Biodiversity index (e.g., Simpson’s Index)
If index ↑ → project successful
Why biodiversity should increase
Larger gene pool
Reduced inbreeding
Greater ecosystem stability
More niches
Prevents extinction
Proving an ecosystem is suitable for a species
Presence of species indicates:
o Correct habitat
o Sufficient prey
o Stable ecosystem
Helps in conservation planning.
Antibiotics & Microorganisms
How antibiotics affect gut flora
Cannot distinguish “good” vs pathogenic bacteria.
Effects:
o Loss of beneficial species
o Reduced diversity
o Overgrowth of resistant bacteria
o Reduced vitamin production & digestion
Bacteriostatic vs Bactericidal
Bactericidal: kills bacteria → no colonies develop.
Bacteriostatic: inhibits growth → colonies still form.
Using exclusion dye:
o Blue = dead (bactericidal)
o Colourless = living (bacteriostatic)
Why soap contains antimicrobials
Kills skin flora, but cannot destroy all microorganisms (especially gut flora).
Aseptic techniques
Prevent contamination + protect humans from pathogens.
Example:
o Bunsen burner
o Sterilise wire loop
o Add bacteria to broth → incubate + shake to maintain suspension +
oxygen supply.
Chromatography
Separates soluble pigments.
Pigments have a specific Rf value in a given solvent.
TB & HIV Interaction
HIV infects T helper cells → reduces Th count.
Without Th cells:
o No activation of B cells → ↓ antibodies
o Poor opsonisation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
o Phagocytosis becomes ineffective
TB symptoms worsen.
Why HIV cannot be fully tested in population
People refuse to get tested
False negatives
Dormant (latent) period
Impossible to test everyone
3️⃣MOLECULAR BIOLOGY & GENETICS
Why DNA has many base pairs
Non-coding regions (introns)
Promoter regions
Some genes code for non-protein RNAs (tRNA, rRNA)
Stop codons
Enzymes
RNA polymerase: synthesises RNA.
Ribosomal proteins: translation + peptide bond formation.
Rubisco: carbon fixation (CO₂ + RuBP).
ATP synthase: phosphorylation of ADP → ATP.
PCR
Used to amplify DNA to obtain enough for analysis.
Taq polymerase: heat-stable enzyme that extends nucleotides and forms
phosphodiester bonds.
Integrase
Inserts viral DNA into host genome.
Identifying resistant genes
Compare:
o Original sample (baseline bands)
o Genetically modified sample (modified band position)
Antigen-MHC presentation pathway
Antigen → transported from RER → Golgi → vesicles → moves to plasma
membrane → fusion → displayed on cell surface.
Resolution of microscope
Ability to distinguish two points close together.
4️⃣IMMUNITY
Types of Immunity
Artificial Active
Vaccines introduce antigens → memory cells formed.
Artificial Passive
Injection of ready-made antibodies (e.g., antivenom).
No memory cells.
Natural Active
Immunity from natural infection.
Natural Passive
Maternal antibodies through placenta or breast milk.
Full Immune Response
1. Phagocytosis
Macrophage engulfs pathogen
Digests it
Presents antigen on MHC II → APC
2. Activation of T Helper Cells
Th cells recognise antigen using CD4 receptor
Activated Th cells release interleukins, which:
o Stimulate Th cell mitosis
o Activate B cells
o Activate macrophages
o Activate T killer cells
3. B Cell Activation
Steps:
1. Antigen binds B-cell receptor (IgM).
2. B cell presents antigen on MHC II.
3. Activated Th cell binds → clonal selection.
4. Interleukins → clonal expansion →
o Plasma cells → antibodies
o Memory B cells
Antibody functions
Neutralisation
Agglutination
Opsonisation
4. Secondary Immune Response
Memory cells rapidly differentiate → rapid antibody rise
Higher concentration
No symptoms
T Lymphocytes
T Helper Cells
Produce interleukins
Activate B cells, macrophages, Tk cells, T memory
T Killer Cells
Identify infected/abnormal cells
Release perforin → pores → cell lysis
Perforin concentration ↑ when two Tk cells activate together
T Regulatory Cells
Suppress immune response after infection
Prevent autoimmunity
T Memory Cells
Long-term immunity
Passive Immunity Before Birth
Mother is vaccinated → immune response → plasma cells form antibodies.
Antibodies remain in maternal blood → cross placenta to baby.
How data for this is collected
Vaccinate women → monitor for a year → measure antibody levels in newborns.
5️⃣PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Chloroplast: Stroma
Site of light-independent reactions.
Carbon incorporation into biomass
CO₂ → GP → GALP → organic molecules (carbs, amino acids, lipids).
Role of light in LDR
Excites electrons in chlorophyll
Drives photolysis
Replaces electrons lost from photosystems
Drives ATP and NADPH production
CO₂ Fertilisation Effect
↑ Temperature → Rubisco activity ↑ → more CO₂ fixation → faster
photosynthesis
Soil temperature effects
Higher temperature → membrane permeability ↑ → faster osmosis → more water
for xylem transport → increased photosynthesis
Nitrates absorbed → amino acids → proteins → biomass ↑
6️⃣VIROLOGY & MEDICAL BIOLOGY
Viruses mentioned
Ebola virus
Herpes simplex virus (HSV)
HIV
HSV as cancer treatment
Envelope proteins engineered to target cancer cells
Virus lyses cancer cells
Triggers immune response:
o Tk cells activated
o Perforin released → cancer cells destroyed
7️⃣FINAL PRACTICAL NOTES
Dilution plating
Serial dilutions →add bacteria to water, repeat sample, inoculate agar → spread
to create a lawn of bacteria – count t colonies