Chapter 5

States of Consciousness

Consciousness is defined as our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment (Koch,
2004). [1] The experience of consciousness is fundamental to human nature. We all know what it
means to be conscious, and we assume (although we can never be sure) that other human beings
experience their consciousness similarly to how we experience ours.

The study of consciousness has long been important to psychologists and plays a role in many
important psychological theories. For instance, Sigmund Freud’s personality theories
differentiated between the unconscious and the conscious aspects of behavior, and present-day

psychologists distinguish between automatic (unconscious) and controlled (conscious) behaviors

and between implicit (unconscious) and explicit (conscious) memory (Petty, Wegener, Chaiken,
& Trope, 1999; Shanks, 2005). [2]

Some philosophers and religious practices argue that the mind (or soul) and the body are separate
entities. For instance, the French philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650) was a proponent
of dualism, the idea that the mind, a nonmaterial entity, is separate from (although connected to)
the physical body. In contrast to the dualists, psychologists believe that consciousness (and thus
the mind) exists in the brain, not separate from it. In fact, psychologists believe that
consciousness is the result of the activity of the many neural connections in the brain, and that
we experience different states of consciousness depending on what our brain is currently doing
(Dennett, 1991; Koch & Greenfield, 2007). [3]

The study of consciousness is also important to the fundamental psychological question

regarding the presence of free will. Although we may understand and believe that some of our
behaviors are caused by forces that are outside our awareness (i.e., unconscious), we
nevertheless believe that we have control over, and are aware that we are engaging in, most of
our behaviors. To discover that we, or even someone else, has engaged in a complex behavior,
such as driving in a car and causing severe harm to others, without being at all conscious of
one’s actions, is so unusual as to be shocking. And yet psychologists are increasingly certain that

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a great deal of our behavior is caused by processes of which we are unaware and over which we
have little or no control (Libet, 1999; Wegner, 2003). [4]

Our experience of consciousness is functional because we use it to guide and control our
behavior, and to think logically about problems (DeWall, Baumeister, & Masicampo,
2008). [5] Consciousness allows us to plan activities and to monitor our progress toward the goals
we set for ourselves. And consciousness is fundamental to our sense of morality—we believe
that we have the free will to perform moral actions while avoiding immoral behaviors.

But in some cases consciousness may become aversive, for instance when we become aware that
we are not living up to our own goals or expectations, or when we believe that other people
perceive us negatively. In these cases we may engage in behaviors that help us escape from

consciousness, for example through the use of alcohol or other psychoactive drugs (Baumeister,
1998). [6]

[1] Koch, C. (2004). The quest for consciousness: A neurobiological approach. Englewood, CO: Roberts & Co.

[2] Petty, R., Wegener, D., Chaiken, S., & Trope, Y. (1999). Dual-process theories in social psychology. New York, NY: Guilford

Press; Shanks, D. (2005). Implicit learning. In K. Lamberts (Ed.), Handbook of cognition (pp. 202–220). London, England: Sage.

[3] Dennett, D. C. (1991). Consciousness explained. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company; Koch, C., & Greenfield, S. (2007).

How does consciousness happen? Scientific American, 76–83.

[4] Libet, B. (1999). Do we have free will? Journal of Consciousness Studies, 6, 8(9), 47–57; Wegner, D. M. (2003). The mind’s

best trick: How we experience conscious will. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(2), 65–69.

[5] DeWall, C., Baumeister, R., & Masicampo, E. (2008). Evidence that logical reasoning depends on conscious

processing. Consciousness and Cognition, 17(3), 628.

[6] Baumeister, R. (1998). The self. In The handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 680–740). New York, NY: McGraw-

Hill.

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5.1 Sleeping and Dreaming Revitalize Us for Action

The lives of all organisms, including humans, are influenced by regularly occurring cycles of
behaviors known as biological rhythms. But perhaps the strongest and most important biorhythm
is the daily circadian rhythm (from the Latin circa, meaning “about” or “approximately,” and
dian, meaning “daily”) that guides the daily waking and sleeping cycle in many animals.

Many biological rhythms are coordinated by changes in the level and duration of ambient light,
for instance, as winter turns into summer and as night turns into day. In some animals, such as
birds, the pineal gland in the brain is directly sensitive to light and its activation influences
behavior, such as mating and annual migrations. Light also has a profound effect on humans. We
are more likely to experience depression during the dark winter months than during the lighter
summer months, an experience known as seasonal affective disorder (SAD), and exposure to
bright lights can help reduce this depression (McGinnis, 2007). [1]

Sleep is also influenced by ambient light. The ganglion cells in the retina send signals to a brain
area above the thalamus called the suprachiasmatic nucleus, which is the body’s primary
circadian “pacemaker.” The suprachiasmatic nucleus analyzes the strength and duration of the
light stimulus and sends signals to the pineal gland when the ambient light level is low or its
duration is short. In response, the pineal gland secretes melatonin, a powerful hormone that
facilitates the onset of sleep.

Sleep Stages: Moving Through the Night

Although we lose consciousness as we sleep, the brain nevertheless remains active. Sleep
researchers have found that sleeping people undergo a fairly consistent pattern of sleep stages,
each lasting about 90 minutes. These stages are: Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is a sleep
stage characterized by the presence of quick fast eye movements and dreaming. REM sleep
accounts for about 25% of our total sleep time. During REM sleep, our awareness of external
events is dramatically reduced, and consciousness is dominated primarily by internally generated
images and a lack of overt thinking (Hobson, 2004). [2]During this sleep stage our muscles shut
down, and this is probably a good thing as it protects us from hurting ourselves or trying to act

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out the scenes that are playing in our dreams. The second major sleep type, non-rapid eye
movement (non-REM) sleep is a deep sleep, characterized by very slow brain waves, that is
further subdivided into three stages: N1, N2, and N3. Each of the sleep stages has its own
distinct pattern of brain activity (Dement & Kleitman, 1957). [3]

Figure 5.4 Stages of Sleep

During a typical night, our sleep cycles move between REM and non-REM sleep, with each cycle repeating at about

90-minute intervals. The deeper non-REM sleep stages usually occur earlier in the night.

As you can see in Figure 5.5 "EEG Recordings of Brain Patterns During Sleep", the brain waves
that are recorded by an EEG as we sleep show that the brain’s activity changes during each stage
of sleeping. When we are awake, our brain activity is characterized by the presence of very
fast beta waves. When we first begin to fall asleep, the waves get longer (alpha waves), and as
we move into stage N1 sleep, which is characterized by the experience of drowsiness, the brain
begins to produce even slower theta waves. During stage N1 sleep, some muscle tone is lost, as
well as most awareness of the environment. Some people may experience sudden jerks or
twitches and even vivid hallucinations during this initial stage of sleep.

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Figure 5·5 EEG Recordings of Brain Patterns During Sleep

Awake
Beta waves

Drowsy, relaxed
Alpha waves

Stage Nl sleep
Theta waves

Stage N2 sleep
Sleep spindles

Stage N3 sleep
Delta waves

REM sleep
Fast,random

Each stage of sleep has its own distinct pattern of brain activity.

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Normally, if we are allowed to keep sleeping, we will move from stage N1 to stage N2 sleep.
During stage N2, muscular activity is further decreased and conscious awareness of the
environment is lost. This stage typically represents about half of the total sleep time in normal
adults. Stage N2 sleep is characterized by theta waves interspersed with bursts of rapid brain
activity known as sleep spindles.

Stage N3, also known as slow wave sleep, is the deepest level of sleep, characterized by an
increased proportion of very slow delta waves. This is the stage in which most sleep
abnormalities, such as sleepwalking, sleeptalking, nightmares, and bed-wetting occur. Some
skeletal muscle tone remains, making it possible for affected individuals to rise from their beds
and engage in sometimes very complex behaviors, but consciousness is distant. Even in the
deepest sleep, however, we are still aware of the external world. If smoke enters the room or if
we hear the cry of a baby we are likely to react, even though we are sound asleep. These
occurrences again demonstrate the extent to which we process information outside
consciousness.

After falling initially into a very deep sleep, the brain begins to become more active again, and we
normally move into the first period of REM sleep about 90 minutes after falling asleep. REM
sleep is accompanied by an increase in heart rate, facial twitches, and the repeated rapid eye
movements that give this stage its name. People who are awakened during REM sleep almost
always report that they were dreaming, while those awakened in other stages of sleep report
dreams much less often. REM sleep is also emotional sleep. Activity in the limbic system,
including the amygdala, is increased during REM sleep, and the genitals become aroused, even if
the content of the dreams we are having is not sexual.

Normally we will go through several cycles of REM and non-REM sleep each night (Figure 5.5
"EEG Recordings of Brain Patterns During Sleep"). The length of the REM portion of the cycle
tends to increase through the night, from about 5 to 10 minutes early in the night to 15 to 20
minutes shortly before awakening in the morning. Dreams also tend to become more elaborate

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and vivid as the night goes on. Eventually, as the sleep cycle finishes, the brain resumes its faster
alpha and beta waves and we awake, normally refreshed.

Sleep Disorders: Problems in Sleeping

According to a recent poll (National Sleep Foundation, 2009), [4] about one-fourth of American
adults say they get a good night’s sleep only a few nights a month or less. These people are
suffering from a sleep disorder known as insomnia, defined as persistent difficulty falling or
staying asleep. Most cases of insomnia are temporary, lasting from a few days to several weeks,
but in some cases insomnia can last for years.

Insomnia can result from physical disorders such as pain due to injury or illness, or from
psychological problems such as stress, financial worries, or relationship difficulties. Changes in
sleep patterns, such as jet lag, changes in work shift, or even the movement to or from daylight
savings time can produce insomnia. Sometimes the sleep that the insomniac does get is disturbed
and nonrestorative, and the lack of quality sleep produces impairment of functioning during the
day. Ironically, the problem may be compounded by people’s anxiety over insomnia itself: Their
fear of being unable to sleep may wind up keeping them awake. Some people may also develop a
conditioned anxiety to the bedroom or the bed.

Another common sleep problem is sleep apnea, a sleep disorder characterized by pauses in
breathing that last at least 10 seconds during sleep(Morgenthaler, Kagramanov, Hanak, &
Decker, 2006). [5] In addition to preventing restorative sleep, sleep apnea can also cause high
blood pressure and may raise the risk of stroke and heart attack (Yaggi et al., 2005). [6]

Most sleep apnea is caused by an obstruction of the walls of the throat that occurs when we fall
asleep. It is most common in obese or older individuals who have lost muscle tone and is
particularly common in men.

Narcolepsy is a disorder characterized by extreme daytime sleepiness with frequent episodes of

“nodding off.” The syndrome may also be accompanied by attacks of cataplexy, in which the
individual loses muscle tone, resulting in a partial or complete collapse. It is estimated that at
least 200,000 Americans suffer from narcolepsy, although only about a quarter of these people

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have been diagnosed (National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, 2008). [7]

Narcolepsy is in part the result of genetics—people who suffer from the disease lack
neurotransmitters that are important in keeping us alert (Taheri, Zeitzer, & Mignot, 2002) [8]—
and is also the result of a lack of deep sleep. While most people descend through the sequence of
sleep stages, then move back up to REM sleep soon after falling asleep, narcolepsy sufferers
move directly into REM and undergo numerous awakenings during the night, often preventing
them from getting good sleep.

Sleep has a vital restorative function, and a prolonged lack of sleep results in increased anxiety,
diminished performance, and, if severe and extended, may even result in death. Many road
accidents involve sleep deprivation, and people who are sleep deprived show decrements in
driving performance similar to those who have ingested alcohol (Hack, Choi, Vijayapalan,
Davies, & Stradling, 2001; Williamson & Feyer, 2000). [9] Poor treatment by doctors (Smith-
Coggins, Rosekind, Hurd, & Buccino, 1994) [10] and a variety of industrial accidents have also
been traced in part to the effects of sleep deprivation.

Good sleep is also important to our health and longevity. It is no surprise that we sleep more
when we are sick, because sleep works to fight infection. Sleep deprivation suppresses immune
responses that fight off infection, and can lead to obesity, hypertension, and memory impairment
(Ferrie et al., 2007; Kushida, 2005). [11] Sleeping well can even save our lives. Dew et al.
(2003) [12]found that older adults who had better sleep patterns also lived longer.

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Figure 5.9 The Effects of Sleep Deprivation

In 1964, 17-year-old high school student Randy Gardner remained awake for 264 hours (11 days) in order to set a new Guinness

World Record. At the request of his worried parents, he was monitored by a U.S. Navy psychiatrist, Lt. Cmdr. John J. Ross. This

chart maps the progression of his behavioral changes over the 11 days.

Source: Adapted from Ross, J. J. (1965). Neurological findings after prolonged sleep deprivation. Archives of Neurology, 12, 399–

403.

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Dreams and Dreaming

Dreams are the succession of images, thoughts, sounds, and emotions that passes through our
minds while sleeping. When people are awakened from REM sleep, they normally report that
they have been dreaming, suggesting that people normally dream several times a night but that
most dreams are forgotten on awakening (Dement, 1997).[13] The content of our dreams
generally relates to our everyday experiences and concerns, and frequently our fears and failures
(Cartwright, Agargun, Kirkby, & Friedman, 2006; Domhoff, Meyer-Gomes, & Schredl,
2005). [14]

Many cultures regard dreams as having great significance for the dreamer, either by revealing
something important about the dreamer’s present circumstances or predicting his future. The
Austrian psychologist Sigmund Freud (1913/1988) [15]analyzed the dreams of his patients to help
him understand their unconscious needs and desires, and psychotherapists still make use of this
technique today. Freud believed that the primary function of dreams was wish fulfillment, or the
idea that dreaming allows us to act out the desires that we must repress during the day. He
differentiated between the manifest content of the dream (i.e., its literal actions) and its latent
content (i.e., the hidden psychological meaning of the dream). Freud believed that the real
meaning of dreams is often suppressed by the unconscious mind in order to protect the individual
from thoughts and feelings that are hard to cope with. By uncovering the real meaning of dreams
through psychoanalysis, Freud believed that people could better understand their problems and
resolve the issues that create difficulties in their lives.

Although Freud and others have focused on the meaning of dreams, other theories about the
causes of dreams are less concerned with their content. One possibility is that we dream
primarily to help with consolidation, or the moving of information into long-term memory
(Alvarenga et al., 2008; Zhang (2004).[16] Rauchs, Desgranges, Foret, and Eustache
(2005) [17] found that rats that had been deprived of REM sleep after learning a new task were
less able to perform the task again later than were rats that had been allowed to dream, and these
differences were greater on tasks that involved learning unusual information or developing new
behaviors. Payne and Nadel (2004) [18] argued that the content of dreams is the result of
consolidation—we dream about the things that are being moved into long-term memory. Thus

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dreaming may be an important part of the learning that we do while sleeping (Hobson, Pace-
Schott, and Stickgold, 2000). [19]

[1] McGinniss, P. (2007). Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)—Treatment and drugs. Mayo Clinic. Retrieved

from [Link]

[2] Hobson, A. (2004). A model for madness? Dream consciousness: Our understanding of the neurobiology of sleep offers

insight into abnormalities in the waking brain. Nature, 430, 69–95.

[3] Dement, W., & Kleitman, N. (1957). Cyclic variations in EEG during [Link] & Clinical Neurophysiology,

9, 673–690.

[4] National Sleep Foundation. (2009). Sleep in America Poll. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved

from[Link]

[5] Morgenthaler, T. I., Kagramanov, V., Hanak, V., & Decker, P. A. (2006). Complex sleep apnea syndrome: Is it a unique clinical

syndrome? Sleep, 29(9), 1203–1209. Retrieved from [Link]

[6] Yaggi, H. K., Concato, J., Kernan, W. N., Lichtman, J. H., Brass, L. M., & Mohsenin, V. (2005). Obstructive sleep apnea as a risk

factor for stroke and death. The New England Journal of Medicine, 353(19), 2034–2041. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa043104

[7] National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. (2008). Who is at risk for narcolepsy? Retrieved

from [Link]

[8] Taheri, S., Zeitzer, J. M., & Mignot, E. (2002). The role of hypocretins (Orexins) in sleep regulation and narcolepsy. Annual

Review of Neuroscience, 25, 283–313.

[9] Hack, M. A., Choi, S. J., Vijayapalan, P., Davies, R. J. O., & Stradling, J. R. S. (2001). Comparison of the effects of sleep

deprivation, alcohol and obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) on simulated steering performance. Respiratory medicine, 95(7), 594–

601; Williamson, A., & Feyer, A. (2000). Moderate sleep deprivation produces impairments in cognitive and motor performance

equivalent to legally prescribed levels of alcohol intoxication. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 57(10), 649.

[10] Smith-Coggins, R., Rosekind, M. R., Hurd, S., & Buccino, K. R. (1994). Relationship of day versus night sleep to physician

performance and mood. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 24(5), 928–934.

[11] Ferrie, J. E., Shipley, M. J., Cappuccio, F. P., Brunner, E., Miller, M. A., Kumari, M., & Marmot, M. G. (2007). A prospective

study of change in sleep duration: Associations with mortality in the Whitehall II cohort. Sleep, 30(12), 1659; Kushida, C.

(2005). Sleep deprivation: basic science, physiology, and behavior. London, England: Informa Healthcare.

[12] Dew, M. A., Hoch, C. C., Buysse, D. J., Monk, T. H., Begley, A. E., Houck, P. R.,…Reynolds, C. F., III. (2003). Healthy older

adults’ sleep predicts all-cause mortality at 4 to 19 years of follow-up. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65(1), 63–73.

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[13] Dement, W. (1997) What all undergraduates should know about how their sleeping lives affect their waking lives. Sleepless

at Stanford. Retrieved from[Link]

[14] Cartwright, R., Agargun, M., Kirkby, J., & Friedman, J. (2006). Relation of dreams to waking concerns. Psychiatry Research,

141(3), 261–270; Domhoff, G. W., Meyer-Gomes, K., & Schredl, M. (2005). Dreams as the expression of conceptions and

concerns: A comparison of German and American college students. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 25(3), 269–282.

[15] Freud, S., & Classics of Medicine Library. (1988). The interpretation of dreams (Special ed.). Birmingham, AL: The Classics of

Medicine Library. (Original work published 1913)

[16] Alvarenga, T. A., Patti, C. L., Andersen, M. L., Silva, R. H., Calzavara, M. B., Lopez, G.B.,…Tufik, S. (2008). Paradoxical sleep

deprivation impairs acquisition, consolidation and retrieval of a discriminative avoidance task in rats. Neurobiology of Learning

and Memory, 90, 624–632; Zhang, J. (2004). Memory process and the function of sleep. Journal of Theoretics, 6(6), 1–7.

[17] Rauchs, G., Desgranges, B., Foret, J., & Eustache, F. (2005). The relationships between memory systems and sleep

stages. Journal of Sleep Research, 14, 123–140.

[18] Payne, J., & Nadel, L. (2004). Sleep, dreams, and memory consolidation: The role of the stress hormone cortisol. Learning &

Memory, 11(6), 671.

[19] Hobson, J. A., Pace-Schott, E. F., & Stickgold, R. (2000). Dreaming and the brain: Toward a cognitive neuroscience of

conscious states. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23(6), 793–842, 904–1018, 1083–1121.

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5.2 Altering Consciousness With Psychoactive Drugs
A psychoactive drug is a chemical that changes our states of consciousness, and particularly our
perceptions and moods. These drugs are commonly found in everyday foods and beverages,
including chocolate, coffee, and soft drinks, as well as in alcohol and in over-the-counter drugs,
such as aspirin, Tylenol, and cold and cough medication. Psychoactive drugs are also frequently
prescribed as sleeping pills, tranquilizers, and antianxiety medications, and they may be taken,
illegally, for recreational purposes. As you can see in Table 5.1 "Psychoactive Drugs by Class",
the four primary classes of psychoactive drugs are stimulants, depressants, opioids,
and hallucinogens.

Psychoactive drugs affect consciousness by influencing how neurotransmitters operate at the

synapses of the central nervous system (CNS). Some psychoactive drugs are agonists, which
mimic the operation of a neurotransmitter; some are antagonists, which block the action of a
neurotransmitter; and some work by blocking the reuptake of neurotransmitters at the synapse.

Table 5.1 Psychoactive Drugs by Class

Addiction

Dangers and side Psychological Physical Addiction potential

Mechanism Symptoms Drug effects dependence dependence potential

Stimulants

May create
Stimulants block the
Caffeine dependence Low Low Low
reuptake of dopamine,
norepinephrine, and Enhanced mood Has major
serotonin in the and increased negative health
synapses of the CNS. energy Nicotine effects if smoked High High High

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 Addiction

Dangers and side Psychological Physical Addiction potential

Mechanism Symptoms Drug effects dependence dependence potential

or chewed

Decreased
Cocaine appetite, headache Low Low Moderate

Possible
dependence,
accompanied by
severe “crash”
with depression as
drug effects wear
off, particularly if Moderate
Amphetamines smoked or injected Moderate Low to high

Depressants

Impaired
judgment, loss of
coordination,
Depressants change dizziness, nausea,
consciousness by and eventually a
increasing the loss of
production of the Alcohol consciousness Moderate Moderate Moderate
neurotransmitter GABA
Sluggishness,
and decreasing the
slowed speech,
production of the
drowsiness, in
neurotransmitter
Barbiturates and severe cases, coma
acetylcholine, usually at Calming effects,
benzodiazepines or death Moderate Moderate Moderate
the level of the thalamus sleep, pain relief,
and the reticular slowed heart rate Brain damage and
formation. and respiration Toxic inhalants death High High High

Opioids

Side effects
Slowing of many
include nausea,
body functions,
vomiting,
constipation,
tolerance, and
The chemical makeup of respiratory and
Opium addiction. Moderate Moderate Moderate
opioids is similar to the cardiac
endorphins, the depression, and Restlessness,
neurotransmitters that the rapid irritability,
serve as the body’s development of headache and body
“natural pain reducers.” tolerance Morphine aches, tremors, High Moderate Moderate

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 Addiction

Dangers and side Psychological Physical Addiction potential

Mechanism Symptoms Drug effects dependence dependence potential

nausea, vomiting,
and severe
abdominal pain

All side effects of

morphine but
about twice as
addictive as
Heroin morphine High Moderate High

Hallucinogens

The chemical Mild intoxication;

compositions of the enhanced
hallucinogens are Marijuana perception Low Low Low
similar to the
neurotransmitters
serotonin and
epinephrine, and they Altered Hallucinations;
act primarily by consciousness; LSD, mescaline, enhanced
mimicking them. hallucinations PCP, and peyote perception Low Low Low

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 The problem is that many drugs create tolerance: an increase in the dose required to produce the
same effect, which makes it necessary for the user to increase the dosage or the number of times
per day that the drug is taken. As the use of the drug increases, the user may develop
a dependence, defined as a need to use a drug or other substance regularly. Dependence can be
psychological, in which the drug is desired and has become part of the everyday life of the user,
but no serious physical effects result if the drug is not obtained; or physical, in which serious
physical and mental effects appear when the drug is withdrawn. Cigarette smokers who try to
quit, for example, experience physical withdrawal symptoms, such as becoming tired and
irritable, as well as extreme psychological cravings to enjoy a cigarette in particular situations,
such as after a meal or when they are with friends.

Users may wish to stop using the drug, but when they reduce their dosage they
experience withdrawal—negative experiences that accompany reducing or stopping drug use,
including physical pain and other symptoms. When the user powerfully craves the drug and is
driven to seek it out, over and over again, no matter what the physical, social, financial, and
legal cost, we say that he or she has developed an addiction to the drug.

Another problem is the unintended consequences of combining drugs, which can produce serious
side effects. Combining drugs is dangerous because their combined effects on the CNS can
increase dramatically and can lead to accidental or even deliberate overdoses. For instance,
ingesting alcohol or benzodiazepines along with the usual dose of heroin is a frequent cause of
overdose deaths in opiate addicts, and combining alcohol and cocaine can have a dangerous
impact on the cardiovascular system (McCance-Katz, Kosten, & Jatlow, 1998). [1]

Speeding Up the Brain With Stimulants

A stimulant is a psychoactive drug that operates by blocking the reuptake of dopamine,

norepinephrine, and serotonin in the synapses of the CNS. Because more of these
neurotransmitters remain active in the brain, the result is an increase in the activity of the
sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). Effects of stimulants include
increased heart and breathing rates, pupil dilation, and increases in blood sugar accompanied by

decreases in appetite. For these reasons, stimulants are frequently used to help people stay awake
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and to control weight.

Slowing Down the Brain With Depressants

In contrast to stimulants, which work to increase neural activity, a depressantacts to slow down
consciousness. A depressant is a psychoactive drug that reduces the activity of the CNS.
Depressants are widely used as prescription medicines to relieve pain, to lower heart rate and
respiration, and as anticonvulsants. Depressants change consciousness by increasing the
production of the neurotransmitter GABA and decreasing the production of the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine, usually at the level of the thalamus and the reticular formation. The outcome of

depressant use (similar to the effects of sleep) is a reduction in the transmission of impulses from
the lower brain to the cortex (Csaky & Barnes, 1984). [2]

The most commonly used of the depressants is alcohol, a colorless liquid, produced by the
fermentation of sugar or starch, that is the intoxicating agent in fermented drinks. Alcohol is the
oldest and most widely used drug of abuse in the world. In low to moderate doses, alcohol first
acts to remove social inhibitions by slowing activity in the sympathetic nervous system. In
higher doses, alcohol acts on the cerebellum to interfere with coordination and balance,
producing the staggering gait of drunkenness. At high blood levels, further CNS depression leads
to dizziness, nausea, and eventually a loss of consciousness. High enough blood levels such as
those produced by “guzzling” large amounts of hard liquor at parties can be fatal. Alcohol is not
a “safe” drug by any means—its safety ratio is only 10.

Alcohol use is highly costly to societies because so many people abuse alcohol and because
judgment after drinking can be substantially impaired. It is estimated that almost half of
automobile fatalities are caused by alcohol use, and excessive alcohol consumption is involved in
a majority of violent crimes, including rape and murder (Abbey, Ross, McDuffie, & McAuslan,
1996). [3]Alcohol increases the likelihood that people will respond aggressively to provocations
(Bushman, 1993, 1997; Graham, Osgood, Wells, & Stockwell, 2006). [4]

[1] McCance-Katz, E., Kosten, T., & Jatlow, P. (1998). Concurrent use of cocaine and alcohol is more potent and potentially more

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toxic than use of either alone—A multiple-dose study 1. Biological Psychiatry, 44(4), 250–259.

[2] Csaky, T. Z., & Barnes, B. A. (1984). Cutting’s handbook of pharmacology (7th ed.). East Norwalk, CT: Appleton-Century-

Crofts.

[3] Abbey, A., Ross, L. T., McDuffie, D., & McAuslan, P. (1996). Alcohol and dating risk factors for sexual assault among college

women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20(1), 147–169.

[4] Bushman, B. J. (1993). Human aggression while under the influence of alcohol and other drugs: An integrative research

review. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2(5), 148–152; Bushman, B. J. (Ed.). (1997). Effects of alcohol on human

aggression: Validity of proposed explanations. New York, NY: Plenum Press; Graham, K., Osgood, D. W., Wells, S., & Stockwell,

T. (2006). To what extent is intoxication associated with aggression in bars? A multilevel analysis. Journal of Studies on Alcohol,

67(3), 382–390.

5.3 Altering Consciousness Without Drugs

Although the use of psychoactive drugs can easily and profoundly change our experience of
consciousness, we can also—and often more safely—alter our consciousness without drugs.
These altered states of consciousness are sometimes the result of simple and safe activities, such
as sleeping, watching television, exercising, or working on a task that intrigues us. In this section
we consider the changes in consciousness that occur through hypnosis, sensory deprivation,
and meditation, as well as through other non-drug-induced mechanisms.

Changing Behavior Through Suggestion: The Power of Hypnosis

Hypnosis is a trance-like state of consciousness, usually induced by a procedure known as

hypnotic induction, which consists of heightened suggestibility, deep relaxation, and intense
focus(Nash & Barnier, 2008). [1] Hypnosis became famous in part through its use by Sigmund
Freud in an attempt to make unconscious desires and emotions conscious and thus able to be
considered and confronted (Baker & Nash, 2008). [2]

Because hypnosis is based on the power of suggestion, and because some people are more
suggestible than others, these people are more easily hypnotized. Hilgard (1965) [3] found that
about 20% of the participants he tested were entirely unsusceptible to hypnosis, whereas about

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15% were highly responsive to it. The best participants for hypnosis are people who are willing
or eager to be hypnotized, who are able to focus their attention and block out peripheral
awareness, who are open to new experiences, and who are capable of fantasy (Spiegel,
Greenleaf, & Spiegel, 2005). [4]

One common misconception about hypnosis is that the hypnotist is able to “take control” of
hypnotized patients and thus can command them to engage in behaviors against their will.
Although hypnotized people are suggestible (Jamieson & Hasegawa, 2007), [5] they nevertheless
retain awareness and control of their behavior and are able to refuse to comply with the
hypnotist’s suggestions if they so choose (Kirsch & Braffman, 2001). [6] In fact, people who
have not been hypnotized are often just as suggestible as those who have been (Orne & Evans,
1965). [7]

Reducing Sensation to Alter Consciousness: Sensory Deprivation

Sensory deprivation is the intentional reduction of stimuli affecting one or more of the five
senses, with the possibility of resulting changes in consciousness. Sensory deprivation is used for
relaxation or meditation purposes, and in physical and mental health-care programs to produce
enjoyable changes in consciousness. But when deprivation is prolonged, it is unpleasant and can
be used as a means of torture.

Meditation

Meditation refers to techniques in which the individual focuses on something specific, such as an
object, a word, or one’s breathing, with the goal of ignoring external distractions, focusing on
one’s internal state, and achieving a state of relaxation and well-being. Followers of various
Eastern religions (Hinduism, Buddhism, and Taoism) use meditation to achieve a higher spiritual
state, and popular forms of meditation in the West, such as yoga, Zen, and Transcendental
Meditation, have originated from these practices. Many meditative techniques are very simple.

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You simply need to sit in a comfortable position with your eyes closed and practice deep
breathing.

Brain imaging studies have indicated that meditation is not only relaxing but can also induce an
altered state of consciousness. Cahn and Polich (2006) [8]found that experienced meditators in a
meditative state had more prominent alpha and theta waves, and other studies have shown
declines in heart rate, skin conductance, oxygen consumption, and carbon dioxide elimination
during meditation (Dillbeck, Glenn, & Orme-Johnson, 1987; Fenwick, 1987). [9] These studies
suggest that the action of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) is
suppressed during meditation, creating a more relaxed physiological state as the meditator moves
into deeper states of relaxation and consciousness.

Research has found that regular meditation can mediate the effects of stress and depression, and
promote well-being (Grossman, Niemann, Schmidt, & Walach, 2004; Reibel, Greeson, Brainard,
& Rosenzweig, 2001; Salmon et al., 2004). [10]Meditation has also been shown to assist in
controlling blood pressure (Barnes, Treiber, & Davis, 2001; Walton et al., 2004). [11] A study by
Lyubimov (1992) [12] showed that during meditation, a larger area of the brain was responsive to
sensory stimuli, suggesting that there is greater coordination between the two brain hemispheres
as a result of meditation. Lutz and others (2004) [13]demonstrated that those who meditate
regularly (as opposed to those who do not) tend to utilize a greater part of their brain and that
their gamma waves are faster and more powerful. And a study of Tibetan Buddhist monks who
meditate daily found that several areas of the brain can be permanently altered by the long-term
practice of meditation (Lutz, Greischar, Rawlings, Ricard, & Davidson, 2004). [14]

It is possible that the positive effects of meditation could also be found by using other methods
of relaxation. Although advocates of meditation claim that meditation enables people to attain a
higher and purer consciousness, perhaps any kind of activity that calms and relaxes the mind,
such as working on crossword puzzles, watching television or movies, or engaging in other
enjoyed behaviors, might be equally effective in creating positive outcomes. Regardless of the
debate, the fact remains that meditation is, at the very least, a worthwhile relaxation strategy.

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[1] Nash, M., & Barnier, A. (2008). The Oxford handbook of hypnosis: Theory, research and practice: New York, NY:

Oxford University Press.

[2] Baker, E. L., & Nash, M. R. (2008). Psychoanalytic approaches to clinical hypnosis. In M. R. Nash & A. J. Barnier

(Eds.), The Oxford handbook of hypnosis: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 439–456). New York, NY: Oxford

University Press.

[3] Hilgard, E. R. (1965). Hypnotic susceptibility. New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace & World.

[4] Spiegel, H., Greenleaf, M., & Spiegel, D. (2005). Hypnosis. In B. J. Sadock & V. A. Sadock (Eds.), Kaplan &

Sadock’s comprehensive textbook of psychiatry. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

[5] Jamieson, G. A., & Hasegawa, H. (2007). New paradigms of hypnosis research. Hypnosis and conscious states:

The cognitive neuroscience perspective. In G.A. Jamieson (Ed.), Hypnosis and conscious states: The cognitive

neuroscience perspective (pp. 133–144).New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

[6] Kirsch, I., & Braffman, W. (2001). Imaginative suggestibility and [Link] Directions in

Psychological Science. 10(2), 57–61.

[7] Orne, M. T., & Evans, F. J. (1965). Social control in the psychological experiment: Antisocial behavior and

hypnosis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1(3), 189–200.

[8] Cahn, B., & Polich, J. (2006). Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies. Psychological

Bulletin, 132, 180–211.

[9] Dillbeck, M. C., Cavanaugh, K. L., Glenn, T., & Orme-Johnson, D. W. (1987). Consciousness as a field: The

Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi program and changes in social indicators. Journal of Mind and Behavior.

8(1), 67–103; Fenwick, P. (1987). Meditation and the EEG. The psychology of meditation. In M.A. West (Ed.), The

psychology of meditation (pp. 104–117). New York, NY: Clarendon Press/Oxford University Press.

[10] Grossman, P., Niemann, L., Schmidt, S., & Walach, H. (2004). Mindfulness-based stress reduction and health

benefits: A meta-analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 57(1), 35–43; Reibel, D. K., Greeson, J. M., Brainard,

G. C., & Rosenzweig, S. (2001). Mindfulness-based stress reduction and health-related quality of life in a

heterogeneous patient population. General Hospital Psychiatry, 23(4), 183–192; Salmon, P., Sephton, S.,

Weissbecker, I., Hoover, K., Ulmer, C., & Studts, J. L. (2004). Mindfulness mediation in clinical practice. Cognitive

and Behavioral Practice, 11(4), 434–446.

[11] Barnes, V. A., Treiber, F., & Davis, H. (2001). Impact of Transcendental Meditation® on cardiovascular function

at rest and during acute stress in adolescents with high normal blood pressure. Journal of Psychosomatic Research,

51(4), 597–605; Walton, K. G., Fields, J. Z., Levitsky, D. K., Harris, D. A., Pugh, N. D., & Schneider, R. H. (2004).

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Lowering cortisol and CVD risk in postmenopausal women: A pilot study using the Transcendental Meditation

program. In R. Yehuda & B. McEwen (Eds.), Biobehavioral stress response: Protective and damaging effects (Annals

of the New York Academy of Sciences) (Vol. 1032, pp. 211–215). New York, NY: New York Academy of Sciences.

[12] Lyubimov, N. N. (1992). Electrophysiological characteristics of sensory processing and mobilization of hidden

brain reserves. 2nd Russian-Swedish Symposium, New Research in Neurobiology. Moscow, Russia: Russian

Academy of Science Institute of Human Brain.

[13] Lutz, A., Greischar, L., Rawlings, N., Ricard, M., & Davidson, R. (2004). Long-term meditators self-induce high-

amplitude gamma synchrony during mental [Link] of the National Academy of Sciences,

101, 16369–16373.

[14] Lutz, A., Greischar, L., Rawlings, N., Ricard, M., & Davidson, R. (2004). Long-term meditators self-induce high-

amplitude gamma synchrony during mental [Link] of the National Academy of Sciences,

101, 16369–16373.

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