DIRECT

CURRENT
CIRCUITS

CHAPTER 28
2
CHAPTER 28 DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
In previous chapter, we discussed a circuit in which a battery produces a current. We will
generally use a battery as a source of energy for circuits in our discussion. Because the potential
difference at the battery terminals is constant in a particular circuit, the current in the circuit is
constant in magnitude and direction and is called direct current.

A battery is called source of electromotive force or, source of emf. The emf 𝜺 of a battery is the
maximum possible voltage that the battery can provide between its terminals. When an electric
potential difference exists between two points, the source moves charges from the lower
potential to the higher.

The connecting wires are assumed to have no resistance. The positive terminal of the battery is at
a higher potential than the negative terminal. In a real battery there is an internal resistance 𝑟.

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 Passing from the negative terminal to the positive terminal, the
potential increases by an amount 𝜀.

When we move through the resistance 𝑟, the potential decreases by an

amount 𝐼𝑟, where 𝐼 is the current in the circuit. Thus, the terminal
voltage of the battery

∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑑 − 𝑉𝑎 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟 = 𝐼𝑅
Circuit diagram of a source of emf
with internal resistance r connected
to an external resistor of resistance R. 𝜀
𝐼𝑅 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟 → 𝐼 =
𝑅+𝑟
𝜀 is equivalent to the open-circuit voltage-that is, the terminal voltage
when the current is zero.

The current depends on both the load resistance 𝑅 and the internal
resistance 𝑟. If 𝑅 is much greater than 𝑟 (R ≫ 𝑟), we can neglect 𝑟.

Figure b is a graphical representation of the changes in electric potential

as the circuit is traversed in the clockwise direction. By inspecting Figure
Graphical representation showing how
the electric potential changes as the
a, we see that the terminal voltage Δ𝑉 must equal the potential
circuit in part (a) is traversed clockwise. difference across the external resistance 𝑅 , often called the load
resistance. 4
If we multiply equation 𝜀 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑟 by the current 𝐼, we obtain

𝐼𝜀 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 + 𝐼 2 𝑟

This equation indicates that, because power 𝑃 = 𝐼∆𝑉, the total power output 𝐼𝜀 of the
battery is delivered to the external load resistance in the amount 𝐼 2 𝑅 and to the internal
resistance in the amount 𝐼 2 𝑟.

5
Example 28.1: Terminal Voltage of a Battery
A battery has an emf of 12.0 𝑉 and an internal resistance of 0.05 Ω. Its terminals are connected to a
load resistance of 3.00 Ω. (a) Find the current in the circuit and the terminal voltage of the battery.
(b) Calculate the power delivered to the load resistor, the power delivered to the internal resistance
of the battery, and the power delivered by the battery.

(a) The current in the circuit : b) The power delivered to the load resistor is
𝜀 12.0
𝐼= = = 3.93 𝐴 𝑃𝑅 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = (3.93)2 3.00 = 46.3 𝑊
𝑅 + 𝑟 3.05

The terminal voltage: The power delivered to the internal resistance is

∆𝑉 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟 = 12.0 − 3.93 (0.05) = 11.8 𝑉 𝑃𝑟 = 𝐼 2 𝑟 = (3.93)2 0.05 = 0.772 𝑊

To check this result, we can calculate the 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑅 + 𝑃𝑟

voltage across the load resistance R:
𝑃 = 46.3 + 0.772 = 47.1 𝑊
∆𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = 3.93 0.05 = 11.8 𝑉
[P = 𝐼∆𝑉 = 3.93 12 = 47.1 𝑊]
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Example 28.1:Continue….
As a battery ages, its internal resistance increases. Suppose the internal resistance of this battery
rises to 2.00 Ω toward the end of its useful life. How does this alter the ability of the battery to
deliver energy?
𝜀 12
The new current in the battery: 𝐼 = = = 2.4 𝐴
𝑟+𝑅 2+3
The new terminal voltage: ΔV = ε − 𝐼𝑟 = 12𝑉 − 2,4𝐴 2Ω = 7.2 V
𝑃𝑅 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 2.4 𝐴 2 . 3 Ω = 17.3 𝑊
𝑃𝑟 = 𝐼 2 𝑟 = 2.4 𝐴 2 . 2 Ω = 11.5 𝑊
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑅 + 𝑃𝑟 = 17.3 + 11.5 = 28.8 𝑊

𝑃𝑟 0.772
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑏 => 𝑟 = 0.05 Ω ⇒ = = 0.016 ⇒ 𝑃𝑟 → 1.6 % 𝑜𝑓 𝑃
𝑃 47.1
𝑃𝑟 11.5
𝑟 =2Ω⇒ = = 0.40 ⇒ 𝑃𝑟 → 40 % 𝑜𝑓 𝑃
𝑃 28.8

Even though the emf remains fixed, the increasing internal resistance of the battery significantly
reduces the battery’s ability to deliver energy to an external load (𝑅).

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Example 28.2: Matching the Load
Find the magnitude of the load resistance 𝑅, when the maximum power
is delivered to the load resistance?
The power delivered to the load resistance is
𝜀 2
𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 = 𝑅
𝑅+𝑟
Differentiate the power with respect to the load resistance 𝑅 and set the
derivative equal to zero to maximize the power.

𝑑𝑃 𝑑 𝜀 2 𝑑 2
= 𝑅 = 𝜀 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑟 −2 = 0
𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑟 𝑑𝑅
𝜀 2 𝑅 + 𝑟 −2 + [𝜀 2 𝑅 −2 𝑅 + 𝑟 −3 ] = 0
𝜀 2 (𝑅 + 𝑟) 2𝜀 2 𝑅 𝜀2 𝑟 − 𝑅
3
− 3
=0⇒ 3
=0
(𝑅 + 𝑟) 𝑅+𝑟 𝑅+𝑟
⇒ 𝑟−𝑅 =0⇒ 𝑅 =𝑟

𝑃 reaches a maximum value 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜀 2 /4𝑟 at 𝑅 = 𝑟.

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8
RESISTORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
Series Combination
For a series combination of two resistors, the currents are the same in
both resistors because the amount of charge that passes through 𝑅1 must
also pass through 𝑅2 in the same time interval.
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = I
The potential difference applied across the series combination of resistors
divides between the resistors.

∆𝑉 = ∆𝑉1 + ∆𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 = 𝐼 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

The potential difference across the battery is also applied to the

equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑒𝑞 :
∆𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅𝑒𝑞 → 𝐼 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 𝐼𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

The equivalent resistance of three or more resistors connected in series is

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯
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Parallel Combination
Now consider two resistors connected in parallel, as shown in figure. When
charges reach point a, called a junction, they split into two parts, with some
going through 𝑅1 and the rest going through 𝑅2 .

Electric charge is conserved, so the current I that enters point a must equal
the total current leaving that point:
∆𝑉1 ∆𝑉2
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = +
𝑅1 𝑅2
When resistors are connected in parallel, the potential differences across the
resistors is the same.
∆𝑉 = ∆𝑉1 = ∆𝑉2

∆𝑉 ∆𝑉 1 1 ∆𝑉 1 1 1
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = + = ∆𝑉 + = ⇒ = +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2

The inverse of the equivalent resistance of three or more resistors connected

in parallel is
1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 10
Example 28.4: Find the Equivalent Resistance
Four resistors are connected as shown in Figure a.
(a) Find the equivalent resistance between points a
and c. (b) What is the current in each resistor if a
potential difference of 42 V is maintained between
a and c?
(a) 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 14 Ω
(b) 8 Ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4 Ω:
∆𝑉 42.0
𝐼= = = 3.0 𝐴
𝑅𝑒𝑞 14.0
6 Ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 Ω:
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 3𝐴
6 Ω: 𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 6𝐼1
3 Ω: 𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 3𝐼2
𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 6𝐼1 = 3𝐼2 → 6𝐼1 = 3𝐼2 → 2𝐼1 = 𝐼2
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 3 → 𝐼1 + 2𝐼1 = 3 → 𝐼1 = 1 𝐴
1 + 𝐼2 = 3 → 𝐼2 = 2 𝐴 11
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Example 28.5: Finding 𝑹𝒆𝒒 by Symmetry Arguments
Consider five resistors connected as shown in Figure a. Find the equivalent resistance
between points a and b.

Because of the symmetry in this circuit, the 5W-Resistor does not contribute to the
resistance between points a and b and therefore can be disregarded when we calculate
the equivalent resistance.
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Example 28.6: Three Resistors in Parallel
Three resistors are connected in parallel as shown in Figure a. A potential
difference of 18.0 V is maintained between points a and b. (a) Find the current
in each resistor. (b) Calculate the power delivered to each resistor and the total
power delivered to the combination of resistors. (c) Calculate the equivalent
resistance of the circuit.
(a) (b)
Δ𝑉 18 𝑃1 = 𝐼12 𝑅1 = 62 × 3 = 108 W
𝐼1 = = =6𝐴
𝑅1 3 𝑃2 = 𝐼22 𝑅2 = 32 × 6 = 54 W
𝑃3 = 𝐼32 𝑅3 = 22 × 9 = 36 W
Δ𝑉 18
𝐼2 = = =3𝐴
𝑅2 6 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 = 108𝑊 + 54𝑊 + 36𝑊 = 198 𝑊

Δ𝑉 18 𝑂𝑅
𝐼3 = = =2𝐴
𝑅3 9 (∆𝑉)2 (18)2
𝑃= = = 198 𝑊
𝑅𝑒𝑞 1.64

(c)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + = + + → 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 1.64Ω
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 3Ω 6Ω 9Ω

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 KIRCHOFF’S RULES
The procedure for analyzing more complex circuits is First rule is a statement of
greatly simplified if we use two principles called conservation of electric charge.
Kirchhoff ’s rules:
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
1. Junction rule. The sum of the currents entering any
junction in a circuit must equal the sum of the
currents leaving that junction:

෍ 𝐼 = 0 ⇒ ෍ 𝐼𝑖𝑛 = ෍ 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
The amount of charge flowing out of
the branches on the right must be
2. Loop rule. The sum of the potential differences
equal the amount flowing into the
across all elements around any closed circuit loop
single branch on left.
must be zero:
෍ ∆𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ෍ 𝐼𝑅 Second rule follows from the law of
𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 conservation of energy.
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Loop direction ➢ The chosen direction of the loop is arbitrary. However, starting a loop
from +sign of battery is easy way.

➢ If loop is in the same direction of the current, the potential difference

∆𝑽 = +𝑰𝑹
∆V across the resistor is +𝐼𝑅 (Figure a).

➢ If loop is in the same direction of the current, the potential difference

∆𝑽 = −𝑰𝑹 ∆V across the resistor is -𝐼𝑅 (Figure b).

𝑉𝑠 = I 𝑅1 + I 𝑅2

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Loop direction
If the direction of loop from (+) sign of battery,

➢ If a source of emf (assumed to have zero internal resistance) is

traversed in the direction of the emf (from negative to positive), the
potential difference ∆V is +𝜀 (Figure c).

➢ If a source of emf (assumed to have zero internal resistance) is

traversed in the direction opposite the emf (from positive to negative),
the potential difference ∆V is −𝜀 (Figure d).

∆𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∆𝑉1 + ∆𝑉2 ∆𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∆𝑉1 - ∆𝑉2

∆𝑉1 ∆𝑉2 If ∆𝑉1 > ∆𝑉2

∆𝑉1 ∆𝑉2

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Example 28.8: A Single-Loop
Circuit
A single-loop circuit contains two
resistors and two batteries.
(Neglect the internal resistance of
the battery.) (a) Find the current
in the circuit. (b) What power is
delivered to each resistor? What
power is delivered by the 12-V
battery? (c) What if the polarity of
the 12 V battery were reversed?
How would that affect the circuit?

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Example 28.8: A Single-Loop (a) Apply Kirchoff’s loop rule to the single loop in the circuit.
Circuit
A single-loop circuit contains two ෍ ∆𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ෍ 𝐼𝑅
resistors and two batteries. 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝
(Neglect the internal resistance of 𝜀1 −𝜀2 = 𝐼𝑅1 +𝐼𝑅2
the battery.) (a) Find the current 𝜀1 − 𝜀2 6 − 12
𝐼= = = −0.33 𝐴
in the circuit. (b) What power is 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 8 + 10
delivered to each resistor? What
power is delivered by the 12-V (b) 𝑃1 = 𝐼2 𝑅1 = (0.33)2 8 = 0.87 𝑊
battery? (c) What if the polarity of 𝑃2 = 𝐼2 𝑅2 = (0.33)2 10 = 1.1 𝑊
the 12 V battery were reversed? 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 = 2 𝑊
How would that affect the circuit? (c)
𝜀1 + 𝜀2 6 + 12
𝐼= = =1𝐴
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 8 + 10
Two batteries are in the same direction, signs of the 𝜀1 and 𝜀2 are the
same.
𝑃1 = 𝐼2 𝑅1 = (1)2 8 = 8 𝑊
𝑃2 = 𝐼2 𝑅2 = (1)2 10 = 10 𝑊
𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 = 18 𝑊

The total power is 18 𝑊, is nine times higher than the original circuit.
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Problem 28.20: 15 = 7𝐼1 + 5𝐼3
The 15 = 7𝐼1 + 5.2
𝐼1 = 0.714 𝐴
ampermeter 5 9
shown in Figure 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 − 𝐼1 = 2 − = 𝐴 = 1.285 𝐴
7 7
reads 2.00 A.
Find 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 and ε = 2𝐼2 + 5𝐼3
. 9
ε=2∗ +5∗2
7
18 88
ε = 10 + = 𝑉 = 12.57 𝑉
7 7
Example 28.9: Applying Kirchhoff’s
Rules
(a) Find the current 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 and 𝐼3 in
the circuit.
(b) Calculate the potential
difference between points b and c
in Figure and identify which point is
at the higher potential.

20
20
Example 28.9: Applying Kirchhoff’s
Apply Kirchoff’s junction rule to the junction c: 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 … (1)
Rules
Apply Kirchoff’s loop rule to the loop ‘abcda’ and loop ‘befcb’:
(a) Find the current 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 and 𝐼3 in 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑐𝑏 → 14 + 10 = 4𝐼2 + 6𝐼1 (loop 1)
the circuit. 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑𝑎 → 10 = 6𝐼1 + 2𝐼3 (loop 2)
(b) Calculate the potential
difference between points b and c
in Figure and identify which point is 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3
at the higher potential. (Loop 1) ⇒ 24 = 6𝐼1 − 4𝐼2
(Loop 2) ⇒ 10 = 6𝐼1 + 2 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
𝐼1 = 2 𝐴, 𝐼2 = −3 𝐴 , 𝐼3 = −1A

Note that 𝐼2 and 𝐼3 are both negative. This indicates only that the currents are opposite the
direction we chose for them. However, the numerical values are correct.
Loop1

b point is connected by (-) sign of battery and c point is connected by (+)

sign of battery. The potential difference between points b and c:
Loop2
𝑉𝑐 - 𝑉𝑏 + 10 = 6𝐼1
𝑉𝑏 −𝑉𝑐 = 6𝐼1 − 10 = 6 ∗ 2 − 10 = 2 𝑉
𝑉𝑏 −𝑉𝑐 > 0 ⇒ 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙.
21
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Example 28.10: A Multiple Circuit
(a) Under steady-state conditions,
find the unknown currents 𝐼1 , 𝐼2
and 𝐼3 in the multiloop circuit
shown in figure. (b) What is the
charge on the capacitor?

22
22
Example 28.10: A Multiple Circuit
(a) Under steady-state conditions,
find the unknown currents 𝐼1 , 𝐼2
and 𝐼3 in the multiloop circuit
shown in figure. (b) What is the
charge on the capacitor?

23
23
Example 28.10: A Multiple Circuit
Apply Kirchoff’s junction rule to the junction c: 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 … (1)
(a) Under steady-state conditions, Apply Kirchoff’s loop rule to the loop ‘defcd’ and loop ‘cfgbc’:
find the unknown currents 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑐𝑑 → 4 = 3𝐼2 + 5𝐼3 Loop (1)
and 𝐼3 in the multiloop circuit 𝑐𝑓𝑔𝑏𝑐 → 8 = −3𝐼2 + 5𝐼1 Loop (2)
shown in figure. (b) What is the
charge on the capacitor? 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3

4 = 3𝐼2 + 5 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 Loop (1)

8 = −3𝐼2 + 5𝐼1 Loop (2)

Loop1 𝑰𝟐 = −𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝟒 𝑨

𝑰𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐 𝑨
𝐼1 = 𝐼3 − 𝐼2 = 1.02𝐴 − −0.364 𝐴 ⇒ 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 𝑨
Loop2

(b) We can apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to loop 𝑏𝑔ℎ𝑎𝑏 to find the potential difference ∆𝑉𝑐𝑎𝑝
across the capacitor. We use this potential difference in the loop equation without
reference to a sign convention because the charge on the capacitor depends only on the
magnitude of the potential difference. Moving clockwise around this loop, we obtain
−8 + ∆𝑉𝑐𝑎𝑝 − 3 = 0 ⇒ ∆𝑉𝑐𝑎𝑝 = 11 𝑉
𝑄 = 𝐶∆𝑉𝑐𝑎𝑝 = 6 × 10−6 11 = 66 × 10−6 𝐶 = 66 𝜇𝐶 24
24
 RC CIRCUIT
A circuit containing a series combination of a resistor and a capacitor is called an RC circuit.
Charging a Capacitor
There is no current while switch S is open. If the switch is closed at 𝑡 = 0,
however, charge begins to flow, setting up a current in the circuit, and the
capacitor begins to charge. Let’s apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the circuit after
the switch is closed. Traversing the loop clockwise gives
𝑞
𝜀 − − 𝐼𝑅 = 0
𝐶
where 𝑞/𝐶 is the potential difference across the capacitor and 𝐼𝑅 is the
potential difference across the resistor.

The capacitor, notice that we are traveling in the direction from the positive
plate to the negative plate; this represents a decrease in potential. Thus, we
use a negative sign for this potential difference.
At the instant the switch is closed (𝑡 = 0), the charge on the capacitor is zero.
So, the initial current 𝐼0 in the circuit is a maximum and is equal to
𝜀
𝐼0 = (𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0) 25
𝑅
The potential difference from the battery terminals appears entirely across the resistor. When the capacitor is
charged to its maximum value 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 , charges cease to flow, the current in the circuit is zero, and the potential
difference from the battery terminals appears entirely across the capacitor. Substituting 𝐼 = 0 gives the charge
on the capacitor:
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑐𝜀 (𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒)
𝑞
Let’s solve the equation 𝜀 − − 𝐼𝑅 = 0:
𝐶
𝑑𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝜀 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞 − 𝐶𝜀 𝑑𝑞 1
𝐼= ⇒ 𝜀 − − 𝐼𝑅 = 0 ⇒ 𝜀 − − 𝑅=0⇒ = − ⇒ =− ⇒ =− 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑞 − 𝐶𝜀 𝑅𝐶
Integrating this expression, using the fact that 𝑞 = 0 at 𝑡 = 0, we obtain
𝑞
𝑑𝑞 1 𝑡 𝑞 − 𝐶𝜀 𝑡
න =− න 𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑙𝑛 =−
0 𝑞 − 𝐶𝜀 𝑅𝐶 0 −𝐶𝜀 𝑅𝐶
𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 (𝑙𝑛 ≡ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ) Charge as a function of time for a capacitor being charged:

𝑞 𝑡 = 𝐶𝜀 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶 = 𝑄 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶

where 𝐶𝜀 = 𝑄 and 𝑒 is the base of the natural logarithm. 𝐼 = 𝑑𝑞/𝑑𝑡. Current as a function of time for a
capacitor being charged is,
𝜀 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶
𝐼 𝑡 = 𝑒
𝑅
𝜏 = RC → the time constant 26
The time constant, represents the time interval during which the current decreases to 1/𝑒 of its
initial value.

The charge approaches its maximum The current has its maximum value 𝐼0 = 𝜀Τ𝑅
value 𝐶𝜀 as t approaches infinity. at 𝑡 = 0 and decays to zero exponentially as
t approaches infinity.
After a time interval equal to one time
constant 𝜏 has passed, the charge is After a time interval equal to one time
63.2% of the maximum value C𝜀 . constant 𝜏 has passed, the current is 36.8%
of its initial value.
27
Discharging a Capacitor
A circuit consists of a capacitor carrying an initial charge 𝑄, a resistor, and a switch. When the switch is
open, a potential difference 𝑄 /𝐶 exists across the capacitor and there is zero potential difference across
the resistor because 𝐼 = 0. If the switch is closed at 𝑡 = 0, the capacitor begins to discharge through the
resistor. At some time t during the discharge, the current in the circuit is 𝐼 and the charge on the
capacitor is 𝑞 (Fig. b).

𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 1
෍ ∆𝑉 = 0 ⇒ − − 𝐼𝑅 = 0 ; 𝐼= ⇒ −𝑅 = ⇒ =− 𝑑𝑡
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑞 𝑅𝐶
Using the fact that 𝑞 = 𝑄 at 𝑡 = 0,
𝑞
𝑑𝑞 1 𝑡 𝑞 𝑡
න =− න 𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑙𝑛 =−
𝑄 𝑞 𝑅𝐶 0 𝑄 𝑅𝐶
𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 (𝑙𝑛 ≡ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ). Charge as a function of time for a discharging capacitor:
𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑄𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶
Differentiating this expression with respect to time gives the instantaneous current as a function of time: Current as a
function of time for a discharging capacitor is,
𝑑𝑞 𝑑 𝑄 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶
𝐼 𝑡 = = 𝑄𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶 = − 𝑒
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶
𝑄
= 𝐼0 is the initial current. The negative sign indicates that as the capacitor discharges, the current direction is opposite
𝑅𝐶
its direction when the capacitor was being charged. The charge on the capacitor and the current decay exponentially at a
rate characterized by the time constant 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶.
28
Example 28.12: Charging a Capacitor in an RC Circuit
An uncharged capacitor and a resistor are connected in series to a battery, as
shown in [Link] 𝜀 = 12.0 𝑉, 𝐶 = 5.0 𝜇𝐹, and 𝑅 = 8 × 105 Ω, find the time
constant of the circuit, the maximum charge on the capacitor, the maximum current
in the circuit, and the charge and current as functions of time.

The time constant 𝜏:

𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 = 8 × 105 5 × 10−6 = 4 s
When the capacitor is charged to its maximum value 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 , charges cease to flow, the current in the
circuit is zero (𝐼=0).
𝑞
𝜀 − − 𝐼𝑅 = 0
𝐶
Then, the max charge on the capacitor:

𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝜀 = 5 × 10−6 12 = 60 × 10−6 𝐶 = 60 𝜇𝐶

The max current in the circuit:

𝜀 12
𝐼0 = = 5 = 15 × 10−6 𝐴 = 15 𝜇𝐴
𝑅 8 × 10

29
29
Example 28.12 Continue…: Charging a Capacitor in an RC Circuit
An uncharged capacitor and a resistor are connected in series to a battery, as
shown in [Link] 𝜀 = 12.0 𝑉, 𝐶 = 5.0 𝜇𝐹, and 𝑅 = 8 × 105 Ω, find the time
constant of the circuit, the maximum charge on the capacitor, the maximum current
in the circuit, and the charge and current as functions of time.

𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 ) = 60(1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/4 )𝜇𝐶

𝑑𝑞(𝑡) 𝑑 −𝑡/4
1 −𝑡/4
𝐼 𝑡 = = 60(1 − 𝑒 ) = 60 𝑒 = 15𝑒 −𝑡/4 𝜇𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 4

30
30
Example 28.13: Discharging a Capacitor in an RC Circuit
Consider a capacitor of capacitance C that is being discharged through a resistor of resistance R. (a) After how
many time constants is the charge on the capacitor one-fourth its initial value? (b) The energy stored in the
capacitor decreases with time as the capacitor discharges. After how many time constants is this stored energy
one-fourth its initial value?

Charge as a function of time for a discharging capacitor is,

𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑄𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶

𝑄 𝑄 𝑡 𝑡
(a) 𝑞 𝑡 = → 𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑄𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 ⇒ = 𝑄𝑒 − ൗ𝑅𝐶 ⇒ − ln 4 = − ⇒ 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶𝑙𝑛 4 = 1.39𝑅𝐶 = 1.39 𝜏
4 4 𝑅𝐶

31
31
Example 28.13 Continue: Discharging a Capacitor in an RC Circuit
Consider a capacitor of capacitance C that is being discharged through a resistor of resistance R. (a) After how
many time constants is the charge on the capacitor one-fourth its initial value? (b) The energy stored in the
capacitor decreases with time as the capacitor discharges. After how many time constants is this stored energy
one-fourth its initial value?
𝑄2
(b) 𝑈0 =
2𝐶
Substitute 𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑄𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶 into this equation,
𝑞2 𝑄2 −2𝑡ൗ
𝑈= = 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 = 𝑈0 𝑒 −2𝑡/𝑅𝐶
2𝐶 2𝐶
𝑈0 𝑈0 1
𝑈= ⇒ 𝑈0 𝑒 −2𝑡/𝑅𝐶 = ⇒ = 𝑒 −2𝑡/𝑅𝐶
4 4 4
1
⇒ 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 𝑙𝑛4 = 0.693 𝑅𝐶 = 0.693𝜏
2
How is the half-life related to the time constant?

After one half-life, the charge has fallen from 𝑄 to 𝑄/2. 𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑄𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶

𝑄 −𝑡1Τ2 /𝑅𝐶 1
= 𝑄𝑒 ⇒ = 𝑒 −𝑡1Τ2/𝑅𝐶 ⇒ 𝑡1Τ2 = 0.693𝑅𝐶 = 0,693τ
2 2
32
32
Example 28.14: Energy Delivered to a Resistor
A 5.0𝜇𝐹 capacitor is charged to a potential difference of 800 V and then discharged through a 25.0-
kW resistor. How much energy is delivered to the resistor in the time interval required to fully
discharge the capacitor?
Energy in an isolated system is conserved, the initial energy stored in the capacitor is transformed into
internal energy in the resistor. Conservation of energy:
∆𝑈 + ∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 0
0 − 𝑈𝐸 − 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 − 0 = 0 → 𝐸𝑅 = 𝑈𝐸
At the end of the discharging q=0. 1 2 1
2 1
So, U=q /2C= 𝐶𝜀 =02 𝐸𝑅 = 𝐶𝜀 = 5 × 10−6 800 2 = 1.6 𝐽
2 2 2

The second way, is to note that as the capacitor discharges through the resistor, the rate at which energy is
delivered to the resistor is given by 𝐼2 𝑅 .
∞ ∞ ∞ 2 2 ∞
𝑑𝐸 2
𝑄 −
𝑡 𝑄 −
2𝑡
𝑃= → 𝐸𝑅 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑡 = න 𝐼 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 = න − 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝑑𝑡 = 2
න 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 0 0 0 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶 0
𝜀 2 ∞ − 2𝑡 𝜀 2 𝑅𝐶 1 2
𝐸𝑅 = න 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑡 = = 𝐶𝜀
𝑅 0 𝑅 2 2

33
33
PROBLEMS
Problem 28.6: (a) Find the 𝑉𝑏𝑎 34
I= = =2𝐴
equivalent resistance between 𝑅𝑒𝑞 17.1
7
points a and b. (b) A potential ∆𝑉1 = 𝐼1 7 = 𝐼2 10 → 𝐼2 = 10 𝐼1
difference of 34.0 V is applied 7 17
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼1 → 𝐼 =2𝐴
between points a and b. 10 10 1
𝐼1 = 1.17 𝐴
Calculate the current in each
𝐼2 = 2 − 1.17 = 0.83 𝐴
resistor.

Problem 28.20: 5
15 − 7𝐼1 − 5𝐼3 = 0 → 15 − 7𝐼1 − 5.2 = 0 → 𝐼1 = 𝐴
The 7
𝐼1 = 0.714 𝐴
ampermeter 5 9
shown in Figure 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 − 𝐼1 = 2 − = 𝐴 = 1.285 𝐴
7 7
reads 2.00 A.
Find 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 and ε − 2𝐼2 − 5𝐼3 = 0
. ε − 2 ∗ 9/7 − 5 ∗ 2 = 0
18 88
ε = 10 + = 𝑉 = 12.57 𝑉
7 7
34
34
Serway 2 6th edition

35
 36
Serway 2 6th edition
Serway 2 6th edition

37
Problem 28.37: The circuit in Figure has been
connected for a long time. (a) What is the
voltage across the capacitor? (b) If the battery is
disconnected, how long does it take the
capacitor to discharge to one tenth of its initial
voltage?

(a) The capacitor is fully charged.

𝑉𝐿 →left loop 𝑉𝑅 → right loop
10
𝐼𝐿 = 5 = 2 𝐴 ; 𝑉𝐿 = 10𝑉 − 2𝐴. 1Ω = 8 𝑉
10
𝐼𝑅 = 10 = 1 𝐴 ; 𝑉𝑅 = 10𝑉 − 1𝐴. 8Ω = 2 𝑉
Δ𝑉 = 𝑉𝐿− 𝑉𝑅 = 8 − 2 = 6 𝑉
1
(b) 𝑅 = 1/9+1/6 = 3.6Ω
𝑅𝐶 = 3.6 × 1 × 10−6 𝑠 = 3.6 × 10−6 𝑠
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 ⇒ 𝐶: 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑉 → 𝑉/10 ⇒ 𝑄 → 𝑄/10
𝑄 1
𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑄𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 → = 𝑄𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 → = 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶
10 10
𝑡
→ 𝑙𝑛1 − 𝑙𝑛10 = − → 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶𝑙𝑛 10 = 8.28 𝜇𝑠 38
𝑅𝐶
Problem 28.54: Calculate the potential difference between
points a and b in Figure and identify which point is at the higher
potential.

Using Kirchhoff’s loop rule for the closed loop,

+12.0 − 2.00I − 4.00I = 0 , so I = 2.00 A

Vb −Va = +4.00 V − (2.00 A*4.00 Ω)− (0.0 A*10.0 Ω) = −4.00 V .

Thus, ΔVab = 4.00 V and point a is at the higher potential .

39
Problem 28.68: Switch S has been closed for a long time, and
the electric circuit shown in Figure carries a constant current.
Take C1 =3.00 µF, C2 = 6.00 µF, R1 =4.00 kW, and R2 = 7.00 kW.
The power delivered to R2 is 2.40 W. (a) Find the charge on C1.
(b) Now the switch is opened. After many milliseconds, by how
much has the charge on C2 changed?

With the switch closed, current exists in a

simple series circuit as shown. The
capacitors carry no current. For R2 we have
𝑃 2.4𝑊
P = I 2R2 𝐼= = =18.5mA
𝑅2 7𝑘W
The potential difference across R1 and C1 is
∆𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅1 = 18.5𝑚𝐴 ∗ 4𝑘W = 74.1𝑉

Serway 2 6th edition

40
Problem 28.71: Suppose the switch has
(a) 9 − 12 × 103 . 𝐼 − 15 × 103 . 𝐼 = 0
been closed for a time sufficiently long for 9
𝐼= = 0.33 × 10 −3 𝐴 = 0,33 𝑚𝐴
the capacitor to become fully charged.
27 × 103
Find (a) the steady-state current in each
resistor and (b) the charge 𝑄 on the (b) ∆𝑉 = 15 × 103 0.33 × 10−3 = 4.95~5 𝑉
capacitor. (c) The switch is now opened at 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶. ∆𝑉 = 10 × 10−6 5 = 50 × 10−6 = 50𝜇𝐶
𝑡 = 0 Write an equation for the current
through 𝑅2 as a function of time and (d) (c) The capacitor discharges after switch is opened.
find the time interval required for the
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑡
charge on the capacitor to fall to one-fifth 𝐼 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶=− 𝑒 𝑅𝐶
𝑅𝐶
its initial value. 50 × 10−6 −
𝑡
−
𝑡
=− 𝑒 18×10−2
= −0.28𝑒 18×10−2 𝐴
15 + 3 × 103 10 × 10−6
𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 = 15 + 3 × 103 10 × 10−6 = 18 × 10−2 𝑠

(d) 𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑄𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶
𝑞(𝑡) −𝑡/𝑅𝐶
1 𝑡
=𝑒 = → − = ln(5)−1
𝑄 5 𝑅𝐶
−6
𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶𝑙𝑛 5 = 10 × 10 18 × 103 𝑙𝑛5 = 289.7 × 10−3 𝑠
≅ 290 𝑚𝑠

41
23
41
Problem 28.83: The resistor R receives 20 W of power.
Determine the value of R. Find the current.
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 … (1)
75 − 5. 𝐼1 − 30. 𝐼2 = 0 … (2)
30. 𝐼2 − 40. 𝐼3 − 𝑅. 𝐼3 = 0 … (3)

𝑃𝑅 = 𝐼3 2 𝑅 = 20 = 𝐼3 𝑉3

2 ⇒ 6 ∗ [75 − 35. 𝐼2 − 5. 𝐼3 = 0]
3 ⇒ 7 ∗ [30. 𝐼2 − (40 + 𝑅). 𝐼3 = 0]

450 − 210. 𝐼2 − 30. 𝐼3 = 0

210. 𝐼2 − 7. (40 + 𝑅). 𝐼3 = 0

450 − 30. 𝐼3 − 280. 𝐼3 − 7𝑅𝐼3 = 0

𝐼3 ∗ [450 − 310. 𝐼3 − 7𝑅𝐼3 = 0] → 450. 𝐼3 − 310. 𝐼32 − 7. 𝑅𝐼32 = 0

450. 𝐼3 − 310. 𝐼32 − 7.20 = 0 → 450. 𝐼3 − 310. 𝐼32 − 140 = 0
45. 𝐼3 − 31. 𝐼32 − 14 = 0 → 31. 𝐼32 − 45. 𝐼3 + 14 = 0
45± 452 −4.31.14 45±17
→ 𝐼3 = = 𝐴
2.31 62
𝐼3 = 1 𝐴 ⇒ 𝐼3 2 𝑅 = 20 ⇒ 𝑅 = 20 Ω
𝐼3 = 0.452 𝐴 ⇒ 𝐼3 2 𝑅 = 20 ⇒ 𝑅 = 98.1 Ω 42