GENERAL ENGLISH — Topic 2 of 11

CLAUSES
Independent • Dependent • Noun • Adjective • Adverb
Complete Notes • Examples • Practice Questions

📘 WHAT IS A CLAUSE?
A clause is a group of words that contains a SUBJECT and a VERB. Every sentence in English is made
up of one or more clauses.

💡 Simple Formula: CLAUSE = SUBJECT + VERB (+ rest of the sentence)

✅ Examples of Clauses
• She sings. → Subject = She | Verb = sings
• The dog barked loudly. → Subject = The dog | Verb = barked
• Because it was raining... → Subject = it | Verb = was raining
• When I woke up this morning... → Subject = I | Verb = woke up

⚠️ A PHRASE is NOT a clause! A phrase does NOT have both a subject and a verb.
Example: 'in the morning' / 'under the table' / 'a big house' — these are PHRASES, not
clauses.

🔍 PHRASE vs CLAUSE — Key Difference

Has Subject? Has Verb?
PHRASE ❌ No ❌ No (or only partial)
CLAUSE ✅ Yes ✅ Yes

Phrase (NOT a clause) Clause (Has Subject + Verb)

in the morning I wake up in the morning.
a tall building The building is very tall.
running fast She is running fast.
after the match After the match ended, we went home.
📗 TWO MAIN TYPES OF CLAUSES

Type Also Called Key Feature

Independent Clause Main Clause Makes complete sense on its own
Dependent Clause Subordinate Clause Does NOT make complete sense
alone — needs a main clause

1️⃣ Independent Clause (Main Clause)

An independent clause is a complete thought. It can stand alone as a sentence. It makes full sense by
itself.

✅ Examples of Independent Clauses

• She reads books every night. ✔ Complete sentence
• The train arrived on time. ✔ Complete sentence
• He plays cricket very well. ✔ Complete sentence
• They went to the market. ✔ Complete sentence
• I love eating mangoes. ✔ Complete sentence

2️⃣ Dependent Clause (Subordinate Clause)

A dependent clause has a subject and verb but does NOT express a complete thought. It depends on
the main clause to make full sense. It usually starts with a subordinating conjunction or relative
pronoun.

❌ Dependent Clauses — INCOMPLETE on their own

• Because she was tired... ✗ (So what happened? We don't know!)
• When the bell rang... ✗ (Incomplete — needs more information)
• Although he tried hard... ✗ (What was the result?)
• If it rains tomorrow... ✗ (Then what will happen?)
• Who lives next door... ✗ (Incomplete thought)

✅ Dependent + Independent = Complete Sentence

• Because she was tired, [she went to bed early]. ← Complete!
• [The students stood up] when the teacher entered. ← Complete!
• [He passed the exam] although he studied very little. ← Complete!
 • [We will cancel the trip] if it rains tomorrow. ← Complete!

Common Words That Start a Dependent Clause:

These are called Subordinating Conjunctions. When you see these words, a dependent clause usually
follows:

Category Words Example

Time when, while, after, before, since, When I reached home, it was dark.
until, as soon as
Reason because, since, as She cried because she was hurt.
Condition if, unless, provided that I will come if you invite me.
Contrast although, though, even though, Although it was cold, he went out.
whereas
Purpose so that, in order that He studied hard so that he could
pass.
Result so...that, such...that It was so hot that we stayed inside.

📙 THREE TYPES OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES

Dependent clauses can work as three different parts of a sentence:

Type of Clause Works as a... Key Question to Ask

Noun Clause Noun (subject/object) WHAT? / WHO?
Adjective Clause Adjective (describes a WHICH ONE? / WHAT KIND?
(Relative Clause) noun)
Adverb Clause Adverb (modifies WHEN? / WHERE? / WHY? /
verb/adjective) HOW?

TYPE 1 — Noun Clause

A noun clause does the work of a NOUN in a sentence. It can be a subject, object, or complement. It
usually starts with: that, what, who, which, whether, if, how, why, when, where.

✅ Examples of Noun Clauses

• [What she said] surprised everyone. → Subject of the sentence
• I know [that he is honest]. → Object of the verb 'know'
• She asked [where the station was]. → Object of the verb 'asked'
• The truth is [that he lied to us]. → Complement of 'is'
 • [Whether she comes or not] does not matter. → Subject
• He told me [how to solve the problem]. → Object

💡 TRICK: Replace the clause with the word 'something' or 'it'. If the sentence still makes
sense → it is a Noun Clause! Example: 'I know SOMETHING.' ✓ → 'I know that he is
honest.' = Noun Clause ✓

TYPE 2 — Adjective Clause (Relative Clause)

An adjective clause describes or gives more information about a NOUN. It comes right after the noun it
describes. It usually starts with: who, whom, whose, which, that.

Relative Used For

Pronoun
who People (subject) → The man who called you is here.
whom People (object) → The teacher whom I like is kind.
whose Possession → The girl whose bag is red is my sister.
which Things/Animals → The book which I read was amazing.
that People or Things → The car that he bought is new.

✅ Examples of Adjective Clauses

• The boy [who broke the window] ran away. → describes 'the boy'
• I found the pen [that I lost yesterday]. → describes 'the pen'
• She met a man [whose father is a scientist]. → describes 'a man'
• The movie [which we watched] was brilliant. → describes 'the movie'
• The woman [whom you called] is my aunt. → describes 'the woman'

💡 TRICK: Ask 'WHICH ONE?' or 'WHAT KIND OF?' about the noun. The answer is the
Adjective Clause! Example: Which boy ran away? → The boy [who broke the window] →
Adjective Clause ✓

TYPE 3 — Adverb Clause

An adverb clause modifies (tells more about) a VERB, ADJECTIVE, or another ADVERB. It answers
the questions: When? Where? Why? How? Under what condition? It starts with subordinating
conjunctions like: when, where, because, if, although, since, until, etc.

Tells Us Conjunction Example

 When? (Time) when, while, before, after, She cried when she heard the news.
since, until
Why? (Reason) because, since, as He failed because he did not study.
How? (Manner) as, as if, as though She sings as if she is a professional.
Where? (Place) where, wherever Sit wherever you feel comfortable.
Condition if, unless, provided You will pass if you work hard.
Contrast although, even though He smiled although he was in pain.
Purpose so that, in order that She left early so that she could rest.

✅ Examples of Adverb Clauses

• [When the rain stopped], we went outside. → Time
• He left [because he was feeling unwell]. → Reason
• [If you study hard], you will get good marks. → Condition
• She exercises daily [so that she stays healthy]. → Purpose
• [Although he was tired], he finished the work. → Contrast
• She speaks [as if she knows everything]. → Manner

📊 QUICK COMPARISON — All Clause Types

Clause Type Function Starts With
Independent / Main Complete sentence, stands Any subject + verb
alone
Dependent / Incomplete, needs main Subordinating conjunctions
Subordinate clause
Noun Clause Acts as a noun that, what, who, whether, how, if
Adjective Clause Describes a noun who, whom, whose, which, that
Adverb Clause Modifies when, because, if, although,
verb/adjective/adverb where...

✏️ EXERCISE 1 — Identify the Clause Type

Read each sentence. Identify whether the underlined part is an Independent Clause, Dependent
Clause, Noun Clause, Adjective Clause, or Adverb Clause.

No. Sentence
1. She laughed [when she heard the joke].
 2. [I know] that he is lying.
3. The boy [who sits in front] is very intelligent.
4. [Because it was raining], we stayed inside.
5. Tell me [what you want].
6. The letter [that arrived today] is from London.
7. [She cooks very well] and her food is delicious.
8. [If you come early], we can talk.
9. I believe [that honesty is the best policy].
10. The woman [whose car broke down] called for help.

✏️ EXERCISE 2 — Fill in the Blanks

Fill in the blank with the correct subordinating conjunction from the box: ( because / when / although / if
/ who / that / where / until )

No. Sentence
1. She did not leave ___ her mother came home.
2. I think ___ you are right about this.
3. The teacher ___ taught us last year was very kind.
4. ___ it rains, we will cancel the picnic.
5. He could not sleep ___ he was worried.
6. She lives in a city ___ there is no pollution.
7. ___ he works very hard, he never gets tired.
8. Tell me ___ you first met her.

✏️ EXERCISE 3 — Combine the Sentences

Combine each pair of sentences using the word given in brackets to form one sentence with a
dependent clause.

No. Sentences to Combine

1. She was tired. She kept working. (although)
2. He did not eat breakfast. He was late. (because)
3. The girl is very clever. She won first prize. (who)
4. It stops raining. We will go out. (when)
5. You study well. You will pass the exam. (if)
 6. I lost the book. You gave me the book. (that)
7. She worked hard. She wanted to succeed. (so that)
8. He came home. His children were sleeping. (when)

✏️ EXERCISE 4 — MCQs
Choose the correct answer:

1. 'Because he was absent' is an example of a:

a) Independent Clause b) Noun Clause c) Dependent Clause d) Main Clause
2. Which sentence has an Adjective Clause?
a) I know what you did. b) The man who called me is my uncle. c) She left because she was ill.
d) If it rains, I will stay home.
3. 'That she passed the exam' in 'I heard that she passed the exam' is a:
a) Adverb Clause b) Adjective Clause c) Noun Clause d) Independent Clause
4. Which word is a Subordinating Conjunction?
a) and b) but c) because d) or
5. A clause that can stand alone as a complete sentence is called:
a) Dependent Clause b) Noun Clause c) Subordinate Clause d) Independent Clause
6. 'Where she lives' in 'I don't know where she lives' is:
a) Adjective Clause b) Noun Clause c) Adverb Clause d) Main Clause
7. 'The book which I borrowed' contains which type of clause?
a) Noun Clause b) Adverb Clause c) Adjective Clause d) Independent Clause
8. Identify the Adverb Clause in: 'She sings as if she is a professional.'
a) She sings b) as if she is a professional c) she is a professional d) as if she

✅ ANSWER KEY
Exercise 1 — Identify the Clause Type
No. Answer
1. Adverb Clause (Time) — when she heard the joke
2. Noun Clause — that he is lying (object of 'know')
3. Adjective Clause — who sits in front (describes 'the boy')
4. Adverb Clause (Reason) — Because it was raining
5. Noun Clause — what you want (object of 'tell')
6. Adjective Clause — that arrived today (describes 'the letter')
7. Independent Clause — She cooks very well
8. Adverb Clause (Condition) — If you come early
9. Noun Clause — that honesty is the best policy
10. Adjective Clause — whose car broke down (describes 'the woman')

Exercise 2 — Fill in the Blanks

No. Answer
1. until
2. that
3. who
4. If
5. because
6. where
7. Although
8. when

Exercise 3 — Combine the Sentences

No. Answer
1. Although she was tired, she kept working.
2. He did not eat breakfast because he was late.
3. The girl who won first prize is very clever.
4. When it stops raining, we will go out.
5. If you study well, you will pass the exam.
6. I lost the book that you gave me.
7. She worked hard so that she could succeed.
8. When he came home, his children were sleeping.

Exercise 4 — MCQs
No. Answer
1. c) Dependent Clause
2. b) The man who called me is my uncle.
3. c) Noun Clause
4. c) because
5. d) Independent Clause
6. b) Noun Clause
7. c) Adjective Clause
8. b) as if she is a professional

🔑 SUMMARY — REMEMBER THESE RULES

Key Points to Remember
✔ A CLAUSE = Subject + Verb
✔ INDEPENDENT CLAUSE = Complete sentence, stands alone
✔ DEPENDENT CLAUSE = Incomplete, always needs a main clause
✔ NOUN CLAUSE = Works as a noun (ask: WHAT? / WHO?)
✔ ADJECTIVE CLAUSE = Describes a noun (ask: WHICH ONE?)
✔ ADVERB CLAUSE = Modifies a verb (ask: WHEN? WHY? HOW?)
✔ Adjective clauses use: who, whom, whose, which, that
✔ Adverb clauses use: when, because, if, although, where, until...
✔ Noun clauses use: that, what, who, whether, how, why, where

END OF TOPIC 2: CLAUSES

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