CHAPTER 8

RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS: RADIO ACTIVITY, MEASUREMENT OF

RADIOACTIVITY, PROPERTIES OF α, β, γ RADIATIONS, HALF-LIFE, RADIO
ISOTOPES AND STUDY OF RADIO ISOTOPES - SODIUM IODIDE I-131,
STORAGE CONDITIONS, PRECAUTIONS AND PHARMACEUTICAL
APPLICATION OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES.

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Radiopharmaceuticals: Compounds or substances which emit radiation and are used
in medicine are called radiopharmaceuticals. The property of emitting radio-active
rays (i.e., radiations) is called as radioactivity.
Atomic number: Atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons
present in the nucleus of its atom.
Mass number: Mass number is sum of the number of protons and the number of
neutrons in the nucleus.
Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
Both the atomic number and mass number of atoms can be represented by writing
them in the following manner:

4 He 12 C 31 35 Cl 39
P K
2 6 15 17 19

8.2 ISOTOPES
Atoms of an element which have the same atomic number but different mass
numbers are called isotopes. In other words, isotopes contain same number of protons
but different number of neutrons. They occupy the same position in the periodic
table.
Isotopes can be classified in two types: (1) Stable isotopes and (2) Radioactive
isotopes.
(1) Stable isotopes: These are stable and do not emit radiations (e.g., Carbon-12 &
Carbon-13; and Hydrogen-1 & Hydrogen-2).
(2) Radioactive isotopes: These are unstable and emit radiations. There may be
naturally occurring radioactive isotopes (e.g., uranium, radium) or may be produced

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artificially. The phenomenon of emitting radiations by these isotopes is called as
radioactivity and such isotopes are called as radioactive isotopes or radionuclides or
radioisotopes.
(a) Natural radionuclides or radioactive isotopes: They occur naturally, e.g., K-40,
Rb-87, Ra-226, U-238, etc.
(b) Artificial radionuclides or radioactive isotopes: They are produced artificially in
nuclear reactors in controlled manner by reactor irradiation or cyclotron irradiation.
They are usually produced by bombardment of atomic nuclei with neutrons or
electrons to produce unstable nuclei of the same element or a different element. They
find wide applications in the field of chemistry, medicine and geology.
(i) Nuclear reactor produced isotopes: Produced by neutron capture (e.g., P-32 from
P-31) or neutron transmutation process (e.g., P-32 from S-32).
31
P15 + 1n0 → 32P15 + γ (neutron capture)
32
S16 + 1n0 → 32P15 + 1p1(neutron transmutation)
(ii) Cyclotron produced isotopes: Cyclotron can used only with charged particles
such as electrons, protons and deuterons. When the particles have been accelerated to
high velocity, they are caused to strike a target containing the atoms to be bombarded
(e.g., Na-22 from Mg-24).
24
Mg12 + 2H1 → 22Na11 + 4He2

Examples of isotopes: Some of the examples of various types of isotopes are as

follows:
(1) Carbon element:
(a) Stable isotopes:C-12 (protons = 6 and neutrons = 6) and C-13 (protons = 6 and
neutrons = 7)
(b) Radioisotope:C-14 (protons = 6 and neutrons = 8)
(2) Phosphorus element:
(a) Stable isotopes:P-31 (protons = 15 and neutrons = 16)
(b) Radioisotope:P-32 (protons = 15 and neutrons = 17)
(3) Iron element:
(a) Stable isotopes: Fe-54 (protons = 26 and neutrons = 28), Fe-56 (protons = 26 and
neutrons = 30), Fe-57 (protons = 26 and neutrons = 31), and Fe-58 (protons = 26 and
neutrons = 32)

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(b) Radioisotopes: Fe-55 (protons = 26 and neutrons = 29) and Fe-59 (protons = 26
and neutrons = 33)
(4) Iodine element:
(a) Stable isotope:I-127 (protons = 53 and neutrons = 74)
(b) Radioisotope: I-131 (protons = 53 and neutrons = 78)

8.3 UNITS OF RADIOACTIVITY

Curie (C or Ci): Unit of radioactivity is ‘Curie’. It is defined as the quantity of the
radioactive substance undergoing 3.7 x 1010disintegrations per second. This is equal
to about 1 gm of radium which also undergoes 3.7 x 10 10 disintegrations per second.
Curie (Ci) is a large unit and in actual practice milli-curie and micro-curie are used.
mCi = 1 x 10-3 of Ci
µCi = 1 x 10-6 of Ci
Becquerel (Bq): 1 disintegration per second (equivalent to 2.7 x 10 -11 Ci) has been
assigned as the SI unit of activity.
Electron volt (eV): Ionizing radiation is a form of energy and unit of measurement is
eV. It is the kinetic energy acquired by an electron when it is accelerated through
through a potential difference of 1 volt. 1 eV = 1.60 x 10-19 joule.
The units of exposure (of radioactive material), absorbed dose and dose equivalents
are:
Roentgen (R): It is unit of exposure of radioactive material and 1R = 2.58 x 10 -4
C/kg (C = Coulomb).
Rad: It is a unit of absorbed dose of radioactive material and 1 rad = 10 -2 J/kg. Gray
(Gy), 1 J/kg (equivalent to 100 rads) has been assigned as the SI unit of absorbed
dose.
Rem (red-equivalent-man): It refers to unit of dose equivalent. Dose in rem = Dose
in rads x Quality factor x Distribution factor.

8.4 MEASUREMENT OF RADIOACTIVITY

In order to measure the radioactivity of alpha particles, beta particles and gamma
rays, many techniques are available for detection and counting of individual particles.
Properties of radiations are utilized in their detection and measurement (e.g., ionizing
effect is measured in ionization chambers, Geiger-Muller counter and proportional

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counters; scintillation effect in scintillation counters; and photographic effect in
autoradiography). All detectors are based on the principle that the radiation deposits
its energy through formation of charge carriers either directly or indirectly in the
detector which results in the flow of current or a voltage pulse. There are mainly 3
broad categories of detectors which are commonly used for radiation detection and
measurement.
(A) Gas filled detectors: (1) Ionization chambers (fill gas: air, Ar or He), (2)
Proportional counters (fill gas: P-10 consisting of 90% Ar and 10% methane), and (3)
Geiger-Muller counters (fill gas: Ar or He).
(B) Scintillation detectors: (1) Inorganic scintillators (alkali halides such as NaI,
CsI, and BaF2), and (2) Organic scintillators (anthracene and stilbene).
(C) Other techniques: (1) Photographic emulsions (autoradiography), (2) Cerenkov
detectors, (3) Track-etch detectors, (4) Thermoluminescence dosimeters, and (5)
Semiconductor detectors.
Ionization chambers: An ionization chamber consists of a chamber filled with gas
(air, Ar or He) and fitted with two electrodes kept at different electrical potentials and
a measuring device to indicate the flow of electric current. Radiation brings about
ionization of gas molecules or ions which cause emission of electrons which in turn
reveals the changes in electrical potential. Due to a smaller number of charge carriers,
they have poor energy resolution and are mostly used as radiation monitors and
dosimeters.
Proportional counter: They are modified ionization chambers in which an applied
potential ionization of primary electrons causes production of more free electrons
which gets carried to the anode. For each primary electron liberated, much more
additional electrons get liberated, the current pulse through electrical circuit is greatly
amplified. The voltage range over which the gas amplification (ionization) occurs is
called the proportional region, and the counters working in this region are called
proportional counters.
Geiger-Muller (G-M) counters: These are the most popular radiation detectors. G-
M counter is one of the oldest radiation detectors and due to its simplicity, low cost
and ease of operation, is still continued to be the best known of all radiation
detectors. They can detect alpha, beta and gamma radiations. A G-M counter consists
of a cylinder (usually 1-2 cm in diameter) of stainless steel or glass coated with silver
on the inner side which acts as cathode (Fig. 1). Coaxially inside the tube, a mounted
fine wire (tungsten) works as an anode. The cylinder space us filled with special
ionizing gas mixture (usually Ar or He) which also contains a small proportion of
quenching vapors (such as chlorine, bromine, ethyl alcohol, and ethyl formate).

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Quenching vapors are used to prevent the false pulses (which may be produced due to
+ve ions reaching cathode) and to absorb photons emitted by exciting atoms and
molecules returning to their ground state.

He, Ne or Ar gas Anode

(at low pressure) (Tungsten wire)

Radioactive Electric
source pulse
+ −
eV
Electric
Electric pulse
Thin mica pulse
window Scaler

Quenching Cathode
vapours (Stainless steel)
Figure 1: Construction of Geiger-Muller counter.
Radiation when enters the tube through a thin section of outer wall (called as window
made of mica or alloy or glass bubble) causes ionization of atoms of the gas. When a
high voltage is maintained between two electrodes, the electrons and positively
charged ions are attracted by the anode and cathode, respectively along with
constituting a flow of current. Each particle of the radiation produces a brief flow or
pulse of current which can be recorded by a scaler showing the total number of
pulses. G-M counters cannot distinguish between the different radiation types and
their energy.
Scintillation detectors: When radiation is incident on certain substances such as
phosphor (organic or inorganic), a flash of light is given out. It thus becomes possible
to measure alpha, beta and gamma radiations by scintillation detectors. Scintillation
detectors consist of a cell, a photomultiplier tube which is coupled with phosphor or
fluorescent material to convert scintillation into electrical pulses, amplifier and scaler.
Both inorganic (NaI, CsI, LiI, and bismuth germanate) and organic scintillators
(anthracene and stilbene) can be used as detectors. These detectors have poor energy
resolution.
Semiconductor detectors: Semiconductor detectors can be considered analogous to
ionization chambers with the gas being replaced by the semiconductor material (Si
and Ge). In a semiconductor the band gap is very small (< 4 eV) and therefore, large
number of electron hole pairs are formed per incident radiation quantum. As ionizing
radiation enters the semiconductor, it interacts with the semiconductor material. It

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may excite an electron out of its energy level and consequently leave a hole. This
process is known as electron-hole pair generation.
Photographic emulsions: Ordinary photographic films consist of an emulsion of
silver halide grains suspended in a gelatin mixture and supported with a glass or
cellulose acetate film.
Cherenkov detectors: These are based on the detection of light (Cherenkov
radiation) which is emitted by fast charged particles through an optically transparent
medium with refractive index more than one. Cherenkov counters are used mainly for
the particle identification.
Thermoluminescence dosimeters: It is a type of radiation dosimeter, consisting of a
piece of a thermo-luminescent crystalline material inside a radiolucent package.
When a thermo-luminescent crystal is exposed to ionizing radiation, it absorbs and
traps some of the energy of the radiation in its crystal lattice. When heated, the
crystal releases the trapped energy in the form of visible light, the intensity of which
is proportional to the intensity of the ionizing radiation the crystal was exposed to.
Materials exhibiting thermoluminescence in response to ionizing radiation include
calcium fluoride, lithium fluoride, calcium sulfate, lithium borate, calcium borate,
and potassium bromide.
Track-etch detectors: When a charged particle slows down and stops in a solid, the
energy that it deposits along its track can cause permanent damage in the material. It
is difficult to observe direct evidence of this local damage, even under careful
microscopic examination. In certain dielectric materials, however, the presence of the
damaged track can be revealed through chemical etching (erosion) of the material
surface using an acid or base solution. If charged particles have irradiated the surface
at some time in the past, then each leaves a trail of damaged material that begins at
the surface and extends to a depth equal to the range of the particle. The commonly
used track-etch materials are quartz, mica, silica glass, makrofol, cellulose triacetate,
cellulose nitrate, and flint glass.

8.5 PROPERTIES OF α, β, γ RADIATIONS

Three different types of radiations with different types of behaviour are observed
from radioactive substances. These are named as α-particles, β-particles and γ-rays.
During this process of radiation, unstable nucleus of a radioactive isotope gives out
energy and gets converted into a more stable form.
Alpha particles (α-particles): These particles are composed of two protons and two
neutrons and identical to the nucleus of a helium atom. Hence atomic number of α-

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particle is 2 and mass number is 4. They are heavy (mass: 6.642×10 -4 g), but slow and
are least penetrating. These can be stopped by a piece of thin paper. These can
penetrate into tissue only for 0.01 cm.
Beta particles (β-particles): These particles are simply electrons emitted by the
nucleus. They have unit negative charge. These have negligible mass but their energy
and velocity are very high. These particles can penetrate into the tissues to the extent
of about 1 cm or slightly more. In other words, penetration of β-particles into the
tissues is about one hundred times more as compared to penetration by α-particles.
Gamma rays (γ-rays): These rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation. It travels
with the same velocity as the visible light. They do not have any charge and mass.
These rays have much more energy and much greater penetrating power. These can
penetrate in the tissue to about 100 cm. In other words, penetration power of gamma
rays is about 1000 times more compared to penetration by alpha particles and 100
times more compared to penetration by β-particles. They are harmful to the living
tissues.

8.6 HALF-LIFE OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES

Radioactivity involves release of radiations from the nuclei of radioactive isotope (or
radioisotope). The rate of isotopic decay is dependent upon the concentration of
radioactive atoms. This means that decay process should follow first order kinetics,
i.e.,
−dA
=λA
dt
A = Radioactivity
λ = Decay constant (sec-)
By integrating on both sides, we get
− ⅆA
∫ = ∫ λⅆt
A
A.
ln =λt
A
Half-life (t1/2) is the time required for a radioisotope to decay to one-half of its
original value at any given point of time.
At half-life
A=A ./2
So

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 A.
ln =λt 1/2
( A . /2)
ln 2=λt 1/2
ln 2
t 1/2=
λ
0.693
t 1/2 =
λ
t 1/2 = Half-life of radioisotope

λ = Decay constant (sec-)

Half-life of some common radiopharmaceuticals (containing radioactive isotopes) are

as follows:
Ferric citrate (59Fe) solution: 45 days (used to study iron metabolism and RBC
formation).
Sodium iodide (131I) solution: 8.06 days (used for the thyroid scanning and study of
thyroid uptake).
Sodium phosphate (32P) injection: 14.2 days (used for the treatment of polycythemia
vera (overproduction of RBCs)).
Calcium chloride (45Ca) solution: 160 days (used to study bone cancer and other bone
lesions).
Ammonium bromide (82Br) injection: 36 hours (used for the measurement of
extracellular water).

Illustration of half-life period:

Initial radioactivity of a solution 64 µCi

After the first half-life period 32 µCi

After the second half-life period 16 µCi

After the third half-life period 8 µCi

After the fourth half-life period 4 µCi

After the fifth half-life period 2 µCi

After the sixth half-life period 1 µCi

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8.7 SODIUM IODIDE (I-131)
Molecular formula: Na131I
Molecular weight: 153.896 g/mol
Description: Sodium iodide (I-131) is a radiopharmaceutical containing the beta- and
gamma-emitting radioisotope I-131.
Properties: Iodine (I-131) decays by beta and associated gamma emissions with a
physical half-life of 8.04 days.
Mechanism of action: Taken orally, sodium iodide (I-131) is rapidly absorbed and
distributed within the extracellular fluid of the body. The iodide is concentrated in the
thyroid via the sodium/iodide symporter, and subsequently oxidized to iodine. The
destruction of thyroidal tissue is achieved by the beta emission of sodium iodide (I-
131).
Uses: Sodium iodide (I-131) is used to treat hyperthyroidism (an overactive thyroid)
and certain kinds of thyroid cancer. In the treatment of overactive thyroid gland, the
radiation from the radioactive iodine damages the thyroid gland to bring its activity
back down to normal. Larger doses of radio-iodide are usually used after thyroid
cancer surgery to destroy any remaining diseased thyroid tissue or to destroy thyroid
cancer that has spread to other tissues. Sodium iodide (I-131) is also used in the
treatment of severe cardiac disease, which reduces work load on heart. Sodium iodide
(I-131) capsules is indicated for use in performance of the radioactive iodide uptake
test to evaluate thyroid function (scanning the thyroid for determining the size,
position and possible tumor location). Diagnostic doses may also be employed in
localizing metastases associated with thyroid malignancies. Because the thyroid
gland naturally takes up iodine from the body, therapeutic methods using
radioisotopes can take advantage of this mechanism for localization of drug to the
site of malignancy.

8.8 STORAGE AND HANDLING OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES

Radiations have dangerous effects on biological systems. Locally induced ionization
promotes a number of irreversible changes in living cells. The developing and
constantly multiplying tissues are most affected by the radiation. Thus, bone marrow,
mucosa of the gut, fetus, gonads, etc., are easily affected. High energy radiation can
affect skin and other tissues.

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Great care must be taken in handling and storage of radioactive materials so as to
protect people and personnel from harmful radiations which the radioactive material
emits. Exposure to radiation can cause serious complications including leukemia
(blood cancer). Therefore, persons handling radioisotopes must use ‘lead shieldings’
as these absorb radiations. The shielding effect can be achieved by thick (one-meter
thickness) concrete blocks or with pure distilled water layer. Water layer stops
radioactive radiation and allow visible light to pass, while thick concrete block stops
all the radiation. Radiopharmaceuticals should be kept in well-closed containers and
stored in an area assigned for the purpose (radioactive materials must be stored in an
area not frequently visited by people). A regular monitoring of radioactivity should
be done in area where radioactive material is stored. The storage conditions should be
such that the maximum radiation dose rate to which persons may be exposed is
reduced to an acceptable level.
Certain precautions should be taken while working with detectors, tracer
experiments, radio-assays, manufacturing or handling of radioactive materials for
protecting people and personnel who handle it. Some of these precautions include
following:
(a) Area where radioactive materials are stored or used should be monitored (i.e.,
continuously tested for radioactivity). The working areas should not get
contaminated with the radioactive material.
(b) Radioactive material must never be touched with hand but handled by means of
forceps or suitable instruments.
(c) If the radioactive liquid has to be handled, it must be carried in trays having
absorbent tissue paper so that any spillage will get absorbed by paper. Rubber
gloves have to be used when working with radioactive liquids.
(d) Sufficient protective clothing (shielding) must be used while handling the
radioactive materials.
(e) Pipettes operated by mouth should never be employed. Before making use of
glass apparatus, it must be ensured that they have been inactive.
(f) Smoking, eating, drinking activities must not be carried out in the laboratory
where the radioactive materials are handled. Food contaminated with radioactive
material can cause serious damage to the internal organs.
(g) Radiopharmaceutical preparations that are intended for parenteral use should be
kept in a glass vial, ampoule or syringe that is sufficiently transparent to permit
the visual inspection of the contents. Glass containers may darken under the
effect of radiation.

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(h) The waste radioactive materials have to be stored till the activity becomes low
before its disposal and great care has to be applied for the disposal of radioactive
materials.
8.9 APPLICATIONS OF RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS
8.9.1 Therapeutic applications
Therapeutic application includes use of open sources in which radiations emitted by
their ability to ionize atoms produce destructive effect on existing cells and prevent
the formation of new cells and tissues. Thus, it is applied to those disease conditions
in which extensive cellular metabolic malfunction or malignant growth exists, e.g.,
hyperthyroidism and treatment of thyroid cancer (using Na 131I), carcinoma of bone
(using 44Ca and 45Ca), polycythemia vera (to decrease the rate of formation of RBCs
using NaH32PO4), etc. The use of sealed sources (e.g., 60Co, 137Cs, etc.) for teletherapy
(use of external beam of radiation) and brachytherapy (sealed radiation source is
placed inside or next to the area requiring treatment) for cancer treatment is one of
the major areas of the application of radioisotopes in therapeutics. The radioisotopes
used for therapeutic purposes are particle emitters such as 32P, 89Sr, 90Y, 131I, 153Sm,
186/188
Re, 198Au, etc.
Product Application
Colloidal gold (Au-198) Treatment of disorders secondary to neoplastic (cancer)
injection situations, especially in pleural and peritoneal cavities,
etc.
Cyanocobalamin (Co-60) Treatment of advanced stages of cancer involving
capsules and solution cervix, uterus, bladder, mouth, tongue, lips, etc.
Sodium iodide (I-131) Treatment of thyroid cancer and thyrotoxicosis
capsule and solution
Sodium phosphate (P-32) Treatment of polycythemia vera (overproduction of
solution RBCs), bone metastases, and certain types of leukemia
Chromium phosphate (P- Treatment of malignant effusions and carcinoma of
32) suspension (injection) ovary and prostate
Strontium (Sr-89) chloride Palliative treatment of bone metastases
injection
Yttrium (Y-90) Treatment of malignant tumors, ascites and some types
of lymphoma
Iridium (I-192) Implanted in tumor tissues (for treatment)

8.9.2 Diagnostic applications

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Diagnostic application includes scintigraphy of organs, both static and dynamic
imaging and as radioactive tracers. The static imaging study gives the size and
morphology of the organ, whereas dynamic imaging study can be used for studying
the functioning of the organ. The high detection sensitivity of radioisotopes makes
them ideal tracers. The radioisotope tagged materials as tracers can follow path of its
inactive analog and can be monitored using a suitable detector. Tracer act as a spy
left in bulk material which helps in detecting path of the substance, mechanism of
reaction and metabolic reactions and processes. The prime requirement of a tracer is
its satisfactory distribution in an organ, system and its ability to trace a particular
metabolic or excretory pathway. Apart from this the product should be suitable and
safe for administration to humans. A variety of mechanism are exploited for
achieving the desired organ specificity. These include active transport, phagocytosis,
capillary blockage, antigen-antibody reactions, and many more. The important
radioisotopes employed in formulation of diagnostic work are 42K, 45/47Ca,51Cr,
57/58/60
Co, 52/59Fe, 67Ga,75Se,81Kr, 82Rb, 99Tc, 111In, 123/125,131I, 133Xe, 169Yb, 197/203Hg,
195/198
Au, 201Ti, etc.
Product Application
Ammonium bromide (Br-82) Measurement of extracellular water
injection
Calcium chloride (Ca-45/47) Study of calcium metabolism disorders, bone
solution cancer and other bone lesions
Chlormerodrin (Hg-197/203) Scintillation scans of kidneys, brain, etc.
injection
Chromium chloride (Cr-51) Study of protein loss from GI tract and
injection absorption
Cyanocobalamin (Co-57/58) Diagnosis of pernicious anemia
capsules and solution
Ferric chloride (Fe-59) injection Study of iron metabolism and RBC formation
Iodinated (I-125/133) serum Determination of plasma volume, total blood
albumin injection volume, circulation time and cardiac output
Potassium (K-42) chloride injection Study of potassium ion (K+) injection
Rubidium (Rb-86) chloride Myocardial blood flow determination
injection
Sodium (Na-24) chloride injection Study of sodium ion (Na+) exchange
Sodium fluoride (F-18) Bone scanning and study of bone metabolism
Sodium iodide (I-125) capsule and Thyroid scanning and study of thyroid uptake
solution
Sodium Rose Bengal (I-131) Liver scan, liver function test
injection
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Sodium sulphate (S-35) solution Determination of extracellular fluid volume
Technetium (Tc-99) sulphide Liver and spleen scans
colloidal solution
8.9.3 Research
Excellent biological and medicinal studies have been possible with radioisotopes as
tracers. Modern knowledge of many biochemical pathways is the result of such
elaborate studies. 14C and 3H are the most commonly used radioactive isotopes for
this purpose. Radioisotopes of Na, Mg, Ca, Cu, Ce, etc., have also been used in
research.

8.9.4 Sterilization
Excellent use has been made of the radiation constantly available from some strong
radiation sources for sterilizing pharmaceuticals in their final packed containers and
surgical instruments in hospitals. Radiation does not destroy or harm most
pharmaceuticals. Thermolabile substances such as vitamins, hormones, antibiotics
can be safely sterilized. 60Co and 137Ce can be used for sterilizing surgical
instruments.

8.9.5 Radio-opaque contrast media

Radio-opaque contrast media are chemical compounds of elements of high atomic
number. They hinder the passage of X-rays and are used as diagnostic aids in
radiology (use of X-ray in the imaging and shadowing of various internal organ
structures). Various radio-opaque contrast media are used in the X-ray examination
of GI tract, gall bladder, bile duct, kidney, liver, blood vessels, etc. Skin and soft
organs appear only as shadow on X-ray films. Most of the radio-opaque contrast
media contain barium iodine and are used for X-ray examinations of the kidney,
blood vessels, liver, heart and brain. They become concentrated in the organ to be
studied, thus producing opacity to X-rays and as contrast media in the diagnosis of
soft tissues by X-rays.
Examples of radio-opaque contrast media include compounds containing barium or
iodine, e.g., barium sulphate (as oral suspension) and iodinated aromatic organic
acids (as IV injection).

8.9.6 Barium Sulphate

IUPAC name: Barium sulphate

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Synonyms: Baritop, barite, barosperse, barotrast
Molecular formula: BaSO4
Molecular weight: 233.39 g/mol
Preparation: It can be prepared by precipitating it from a cold dilute solution of
soluble salt of barium (such as BaCl2) with dilute sulphuric acid. The precipitate is
filtered off, washed and dried.
BaCl2 + H2SO4 → BaSO4 (↓) + 2HCl
Properties: Barium sulphate occurs as fine, heavy, white, odorless, tasteless, bulky
powder insoluble in water and soluble in concentrated sulphuric acid.
Melting point: 1580 °C
Boiling point: 1600 °C
Density: 4.5 g/mL
Uses: Barium sulphate is used as radio-opaque contrast media for X-ray examination
of the GI tract as suspension and is not absorbed. The suspensions in various
concentrations (usually 200-300 g) are administered orally or by enema after fasting.
Constipation is a major side effect of barium sulphate. The patient is usually given 30
mL castor oil evening before the examination.

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 QUESTION BANK
MCQs

01. Diagnostic use of Rose Bengal I-131 is

A. Heart function
B. Liver function
C. Kidney function
D. Brain function

02. Radio-active isotope decay by the?

A. Zero order kinetics
B. First order kinetics
C. Mixed order kinetics
D. None of these

03. Which agent is used as radio-opaque contrast media for X-ray analysis of GIT?
A. Barium sulphate
B. Magnesium sulphate
C. Radioactive iodine
D. Sodium phosphate

04. Sodium iodide isotope is used for ………… purpose.

A. Protective
B. Antacid
C. Diagnostic
D. Antidote

05. Which radiation is having more penetrating capacity?

A. Alpha B. Beta
C. Gamma D. None of these

06. Geiger-Muller counter is used for

A. Measurement of radioactivity
B. Production of radio-isotopes
C. Both of the above
D. None of these

07. The radiation measurement unit is:

A. Curie B. Microcurie
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C. Millicurie D. All of the above

08. In a radiation change a nucleus usually losses just one particle of α and β, it is
frequently accompanied by
A. X-ray
B. Gamma ray
C. Both A and B
D. None of these

09. 1 Roentgen is equivalent to

A. 2.58 × 10-6 C/Kg B. 1.58 × 10-4 C/Kg
C. 1.58 × 10-6 C/Kg D. 2.58 × 10-4 C/Kg

10. Beta particles can penetrate tissue up to

A. 10000 cm B. 1000 cm
C. 1 cm D. 10 cm

11. Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiations with a wave length

A. Much larger than light B. Much shorter than light
C. Equal to light D. None of these

12. Calcium chloride (Ca-47) injection is used for

A. Diagnosis of pernicious anaemia B. Urinary and faecal marker
C. Pancreatic scintigraphy D. None of the above

13. Gold-198 is used in the treatment of

A. Pernicious anaemia
B. Rheumatoid arthritis
C. Detection of tumours
D. Thyroid functioning

14. I-125 is used as

A. Thyroid functioning test B. To detect and estimate drugs in body fluids
C. Both A and B D. None of these

15. The effect of radioactive particles passing through the biological tissues depends
upon:
A. Energy of radiation
B. Ability of radiation to penetrate tissue

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C. Dose rate of the radiation
D. All of the above

16. Which of the following statement is correct regarding the handling and storage of
radiopharmaceuticals?
A. Never be touched with hand
B. Protective clothing must be used
C. Kept in suitable labeled container
D. All of the above

17. Each radionuclide is characterized by an invariable half-life expressed in units of

time and by the nature and energy of its radiation. The energy of radiation is
expressed in:
A. Electron volt B. Kilo electron volt
C. Mega electron volt D. All of the above

18. Sodium chromate solution or injection (Chromium 51) is used for

A. To label RBC
B. Diagnosis of various infections
C. Cisternography
D. Ventriculography

19. 1 Rad is equal to

A. 10-3 J/kg B. 10-5 J/Kg
C. 10-2 J/Kg D. 10-8 J/Kg

20. Which of the following are not present in nucleus?

A. Protons
B. Neutrons
C. Electrons
D. All of the above

Answer key
01 B 02 B 03 A 04 C 05 C 0 A 07 D 08 C 0 D 10 C
6 9
11 B 12 B 13 B 14 C 15 D 1 D 17 D 18 A 1 C 20 C
6 9

Very short answer questions

116
01. Define radiopharmaceuticals.
02. Define atomic number.
03. Define mass number.
04. Define isotopes.
05. What are radioisotopes?
06. Define Curie?
07. Enlist methods used for measurement of radioactivity.
08. What is principle of Geiger-Muller counter?
09. What is mass and charge of alpha particles?
10. What is penetration strength of alpha, beta and gamma particles?
11. Define half-life of radioactive isotopes.
12. Write therapeutic uses of sodium iodide (I-131).

Short answer questions

01. Compare properties of alpha, beta and gamma particles.

02. Discuss in detail about half-life of radiopharmaceuticals.
03. Discuss properties, mechanism of action and uses of sodium iodide (I-131).
04. Write a short note on radio-opaque contrast media.

Long answer questions

01. Discuss about the storage conditions and handling of the radioactive substances.
02. Explain various pharmaceutical applications of radioactive substances.

117