SOHO LAN

• One of the most common local-area deployments is the Small-Office / Home-Office LAN
(SOHO).

• It is a small computer network usually built of one Ethernet switch, one router, and one
wireless access point.

• Wireless Router combine 4-port Ethernet switch, wireless access point, IP router, and a
firewall into an all-in-one device.

• Usually, these types of devices are easy to set up and ready to go after unboxing, but the
downside is that they have lower performance and low scalability
SOHO LAN
 ENTERPRISE LAN
• Enterprise networks are much larger in scale than a typical SOHO LAN.

• The network devices used are enterprise-grade, usually racked in wiring closets.

• Clients typically connect the access switches through the building's structure cabling and
there is wireless access as well.

• Each office has an Ethernet switch and a wireless access point (AP).

• To allow communication between the offices, all access switches connect to one centralized
aggregation switch
ENTERPRISE LAN
 ETHERNET LAN WITH HUBS
• Ethernet Hub is a network device that is used for connecting multiple nodes and making
them act as connected to a single network segment.

• It works purely at the physical layer of the OSI model.

• It has multiple ports, in which the incoming electrical signals on one port are repeated
at the output of every other port.

• A Hub makes all connected devices to be part of one single network segment because
every electrical signal on every cable is replicated to all other cables.

• This creates a single shared medium and a network collision occurs when more than
one device attempts to send a frame on the segment at the same time.
ETHERNET LAN WITH HUBS

MSG 1 MSG 2
 COLLISION DOMAIN

• A collision occurs when multiple devices send data simultaneously over a shared
communication channel, allowing only one device to transfer data simultaneously.

• This is because the electrical signals sent by the devices overlap and interfere with each
other, making the data unreadable.

• Therefore, when a collision occurs, data is lost. So, the devices that had sent the data that
collided need to resend it.

• A collision domain is a network segment where data transmitted by devices belonging to

it can collide with each other.

• If any two devices are part of different collision domains, the data transmitted by both
devices will never collide.
 COLLISION DOMAIN

• A large collision domain is a problem in any network. This is because the larger the
collision domain, the greater the chance of collisions occurring.

• Consequently, by increasing the chance of collisions, the rate of data retransmissions

increases, and network performance decreases.

• Therefore, finding the size of collision domains is an important task. We can measure it
by finding out the number of devices whose signals can collide with each other in a
network.

• All devices connected to a hub are in the same collision domain. Thus, messages sent by
these devices can collide. The same applies to Wi-Fi networks. So since all devices
connected to a Wi-Fi network share the same spectrum, they also share the same collision
domain. In Wi-Fi, the CSMA/CA protocol handles this kind of problem.
 COLLISION DOMAIN

• On the other hand, in a switch or router, each port is part of a different collision domain.

• Therefore, each device connected to a switch or router is contained in an individual

collision domain.

• Hence, a collision only occurs if the switch/router and a device connected to it send a
packet simultaneously and the channel is half-duplex. Otherwise, collisions don’t occur.
 BROADCAST DOMAIN

• A broadcast domain is a collection of network devices that receive broadcast traffic

from each other.

• It is a group of devices that receive a broadcast frame sent by one of themembers in the
LAN.( DEST. MAC :[Link])

• Switches are devices that create broadcast domains.

• Broadcast traffic is not very efficient

• Routers, unlike switches, do not forward broadcast traffic

 BROADCAST DOMAIN

There are 3 broadcast domain in the above example :

1) LAN 1 : [Link] , [Link] , [Link]
2) LAN 2: [Link] , [Link], [Link]
3) ROUTER : [Link] , [Link]
LAN SWITCHING LOGIC
 LAN SWITCHING LOGIC

Preamble (7 Bytes)

• A sequence of alternating 1s and 0s at the beginning of the frame.

• It helps synchronize the receiving device's clock with the incoming data.

• This critical piece of data ensures the recipient can accurately interpret the data.

• As a loose analogy, think of it as showing the recipient the “rhythm” of the message so
they are both on the same beat.
 LAN SWITCHING LOGIC
Start Frame Delimiter (SFD) (1 Byte)

• This marks the end of the preamble and indicates the start of the frame.

• It's a specific bit sequence (10101011) that signals the beginning of the frame payload.

Destination MAC Address (6 Bytes)

• A 6-byte (48-bit) field specifying the MAC address of the device to which the frame is
being sent.

Source MAC Address (6 Bytes)

• This is another 6-byte field that indicates the MAC address of the device sending the
frame.
 LAN SWITCHING LOGIC
EtherType/Length (2 Bytes)

• A 2-byte field specifying either the type of protocol in the payload (EtherType) or the
length of the payload data.

Payload (Variable)

• The payload refers to the actual data being transmitted.

• It can vary in size and includes the information to be delivered to the recipient. The
payload is between 46 and 1500 bytes in length.

Frame Check Sequence (FCS) (4 Bytes)

A 4-byte (32-bit) field for error checking. It helps the receiving device identify any errors in
the frame during transmission.
 LAN SWITCHING LOGIC
Frame Check Sequence (FCS) (4 Bytes)

• A 4-byte (32-bit) field for error checking.

• It helps the receiving device identify any errors in the frame during transmission.
 REDUNDANT LINK

• Redundant links are used to prevent nasty network failure.

• These are used to provide redundancy, i.e back up when a link fails, i.e a frame can be
forwarded out through another path but it can cause problems also.
Some of the major problems caused are :
1) Broadcast Storm
2) Multiple Copies
3) MAC Table Thrashing
A switch forwards out the broadcast frame, generated by another device, to all its ports.
If no loop avoidance schemes are applied then the switches will flood broadcasts
endlessly throughout the network which consumes all the available bandwidth. This
phenomenon is called a broadcast storm.
A broadcast storm is a serious network problem and can shut down the entire network in
seconds.
 REDUNDANT LINK
1. Broadcast Storm :
A switch forwards out the broadcast frame, generated by another device, to all its
ports. If no loop avoidance schemes are applied then the switches will flood
broadcasts endlessly throughout the network which consumes all the available
bandwidth. This phenomenon is called a broadcast storm. A broadcast storm is a
serious network problem and can shut down the entire network in seconds.

HOST A HOST B
 REDUNDANT LINK

2. MULTIPLE COPIES

A device can receive multiple copies of the same frame if a frame arrives from
different network segments at the same time.

ROUTER
MSG
MSG
 REDUNDANT LINK
• Switch A is connected to host A and switch C. On the other hand, switch B is connected
to switch C and host B.

• Suppose, if host A wants to send a unicast frame to the router then it will forward out the
frame to switch A.

• Switch A in turn forward out it to the router and switch C. At this time, the router will
receive the packet.

• But switch C in turn forwards the packet to Switch B and Switch B will forward it out to
the router.

• At this time, the router will receive multiple copies of a single frame. This is a problem
as most protocols cannot correctly handle duplicate transmissions.
 REDUNDANT LINK
3. MAC TABLE THRASHING

Switches use the MAC address table to forward out the frames. When a switch receives a
frame, it makes an entry of the device mac address with the switch port on which the
frame is received but if the switch receives the frame of the same source from more than
one link then it will be confusing for the switch to make an entry in the MAC table. It
will lead to instability of the MAC table.
REDUNDANT LINK

If host A sends a unicast frame for host B

then switch A will receive the frame.
Switch A will forward it out to both switch
B and switch D which in turn both forward
it out to switch C. Now, switch C will
receive the frame on two different ports
with the same source mac address therefore
it will lead to instability in the MAC table
in switch C. Spanning Tree Protocol (STP)
is used to prevent these loops. It will block
down a (port) path using its own
mechanism by which a single path is
available for frame delivery at a time. If
one path goes down, then the blocked path
becomes active and frame transmission can
take place from that path (in switches)
 SWITCHING MODES

• The first step in switches' operational logic is to receive an Ethernet frame from the
transmitting node.

• Depending on the type of switching methodology in use, the switch needs to receive and
examine a different number of bytes before going to the next operational step and
ultimately switch the frame to the outgoing port or ports.

• There are two main switching modes supported on Cisco switches:

1) Cut-Through mode, which has two forms:

• Fragment-free switching
• Fast-forward switching

2) Store-and-Forward mode
 SWITCHING MODES
• Both switching modes base their forwarding decisions on the destination MAC address of
the Ethernet frames.

• They also learn MAC addresses and build their MAC tables as they examine the source
MAC address (SMAC) fields in the Ethernet header as frames are being forwarded.

• These switching modes differ in how much of the frame must be received and examined
by the switch before the frame start being forwarded out the egress port.
 SWITCHING MODES
1) Store-and-Forward Mode

• In this switching method, the frame has to be received entirely before a forwarding decision is
made based on destination MAC address lookup.

• Once received and buffered, the switch will compare the FCS field of the frame against its frame-
check-sequence (FCS) calculations to ensure the integrity and correctness of the data.

• If the CRC values don't match, the frame is marked as invalid and dropped.

• If the values match, the destination and the source MAC addresses are examined before the frame
is forwarded.

• This method creates higher latency than the other three and discards frames smaller than 64
bytes(runts) and larger than 1518 bytes (giants) by default.
 SWITCHING MODES
1) CUT-THROUGH SWITCHING

• Ethernet switch that uses cut-through switching can make a forwarding decision as
soon as it gets the first couple of bytes of the incoming frame.

• The switch does not have to wait for the rest of the frame to start switching the frame
to the outgoing port.

a) Fragment-Free Mode

• Switches operating in this mode must receive and examine the first 64 bytes of the
frame and then make a forwarding decision.
• In an Ethernet LAN, collision fragments are detected in the first 64 bytes. This
switching mode is no longer widely used these days, so we only mention it for
reference.
 SWITCHING MODES
b) Fast-forward switching (referred to just as cut-through)

• A cut-through switch can make a forwarding decision as soon as it gets the destination
MAC address of the frame, which means it needs only the first 6 bytes.

• It does not have to wait for the rest of the Ethernet frame to make its forwarding decision.

• More sophisticated cut-through switches today do not necessarily take this approach.

• They may parse an incoming frame until they have enough information from the frame
content to perform all additional features
SWITCHING MODES
 POWER OVER ETHERNET

• Power over Ethernet (PoE) is a technology we use to power devices through regular
Ethernet network cables.

• Designed for VoIP phones.

• Analog phones are powered directly through the same copper wires we use for voice
calls.

• VoIP phones use Ethernet cables without power, so they required a power adapter
which is cumbersome.
 POWER OVER ETHERNET

Nowadays, we use PoE for many devices. For example:

• VoIP phones
• IP cameras
• Wireless access points
• IoT devices
• PoS devices
• Raspberry Pi
• Arduino devices
• Small routers and switches

A device that is powered by PoE is called a powered device (PD). A device that provides
power on the cable is called Power Sourcing Equipment (PSE).
 POWER OVER ETHERNET
1. ENDSPAN :

• The PoE endspan method uses a switch with integrated PoE.

• The end devices connected to the switch which will detect whether the end device is PoE
compatible and enables power automatically.

• PoE switches come in multiple sizes. There are unmanaged switches with ~4 ports or large
managed switches with dozens of ports.
POWER OVER ETHERNET
 POWER OVER ETHERNET
2. MIDSPAN :

• The PoE midspan method uses PoE injectors to add PoE to regular non-PoE links.

• PoE injectors can add PoE to network without adding or replacing non-PoE switches.

• These are intelligent devices that can detect whether the PD requires power and enables
power.

• PoE injectors are useful when we only have a few devices we want to power.
POWER OVER ETHERNET
 POWER OVER ETHERNET

Cisco Universal Power over Ethernet (UPoE) and Cisco Universal Power over Ethernet Plus (UPoE+), which tripled the
power provided per switch interface are Cisco’ s official power over Ethernet technologies
 POWER OVER ETHERNET

• Ethernet cable that meets CAT5e (or better) standards consists of four twisted pairs of
cable, and PoE sends power over these pairs to PoE-enabled devices.

• In one method, two wire pairs are used to transmit data, and the remaining two pairs are
used for power.

• In the other method, power and data are sent over the same pair.

• When the same pair is used for both power and data, the power and data transmissions
don't interfere with each other. This is known as "phantom power."

• Phantom power is accomplished by power being transmitted on the data conductors by

applying a common voltage to each pair. Data transmission is not affected since twisted-
pair Ethernet uses differential signaling.
• .
 POWER OVER ETHERNET

• The center tap of the standard Ethernet pulse transformer is then used to extract the
common-mode voltage.

• Security cameras, digital signage, video conferencing systems and wireless access
points are examples of PoE-compatible devices.

• To get the best PoE performance, you need to effectively dissipate heat and keep a cool,
stable temperature in your cables.

• As the temperature of a cable rises, the electrical performance can be degraded.

• Higher heat dissipation is crucial to increase physical performance and longevity.

 POWER OVER ETHERNET

• Cable Temperature Rating

The temperature rating of a cable indicates the temperature the insulation/jacketing material can sustain. Cables
used for PoE have to have a temperature rating higher than 60°C. Common temperature ratings for cables are
60°C, 75°C and 90°C.

• Conductor Size/Resistance

Heat generation can be the result of conductor resistance in PoE applications. To improve conductor resistance,
choose a cable with a larger conductor size. A CAT6A cable has a larger conductor size than CAT5e cable,
providing less resistance. The greater the conductor size of the cable, the more it can reduce conductor resistance.

• Shielding and Jacketing

Twisted pair copper cables for PoE applications are typically F/UTP (four twisted pairs surrounded by some form
of shielding in a cable jacket). UTP (unshielded twisted pair cable) is not recommended for PoE applications since
it cannot dissipate heat as effectively.
 POWER OVER ETHERNET

• Installation

Installation and environmental conditions can have a substantial impact on PoE

performance. To avoid increasing temperature, steer clear of circumstances which
could confine heat within a cable such as large bundles, bundles in close proximity
and construction or installations that are not within accepted guidelines.

• Additional PoE Cable Consideration: Insertion Loss

Insertion loss can be a critical factor when considering the safety and performance of
the cable to be used for PoE. Insertion loss can be calculated as the ratio of "received
to sent" signal power. More power can result in greater insertion loss levels with
rising cable temperatures which may lead to damaged cables.
 POWER OVER ETHERNET

• Category 3

Category 3 is the performance level for voice and data transmission up to 16 MHz or 10
Mbps, such as 4-Mbps Token Ring and 10BASE-T.

• Category 4

Categroy 4 is the performance level for voice and data transmission up to 20 MHz or 16
Mbps, such as 4-/16-Mbps UTP.

• CAT5 Cable

Category 5, or CAT5, was ratified in 1991. CAT5 has become obsolete in recent years, due
to its limitations compared to CAT5e cables. Although the CAT5 cable is a good, solid cable
for 10/100 Mbps LANs, the newer versions of CAT cables are significantly faster.
 POWER OVER ETHERNET

• CAT5e Cable

Category 5e, also known as Category 5 Enhanced, or CAT5e, is a network cable standard
ratified in 1999. CAT5e cable offers significantly improved performance over the old
CAT5 cable, including up to 10 times faster speeds and a significantly greater ability to
traverse distances without being impacted by crosstalk.

CAT5 vs. CAT5e Crosstalk

CAT5e was specifically designed to have a reduced amount of crosstalk (the interference
between cables when they are close to one another) compared to CAT5 cables. Crosstalk
can still occur in CAT5e cables, but most of the time it does not result in any serious
compromising of data.
 POWER OVER ETHERNET

• Category 6

The next level in the cabling hierarchy is Category 6 (CAT6) (ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-B.2-1),

which was ratified by the TIA/EIA in June 2002. CAT6 provides higher performance than
CAT5e and features more stringent specifications for crosstalk and system noise.
• CAT6a: Augmented Category 6

CAT6a is a 10-Gigabit Ethernet (10-GbE) over copper standard. Its requirements are
covered in ANSI/TIA-568-C.2 (Balanced Twisted-Pair Telecommunications Cabling and
Components Standard) published in August 2009. The standard defines 10-Gigabit data
transmission over a 4-connector twisted-pair copper cable for a distance of 100 meters on
CAT6a copper cabling. This ensures that the system is ready to support IEEE 802.3an, the
IEEE standard for 10GBASE-T, which specifies using Class E-augmented cable.
 POWER OVER ETHERNET

• Category 7/Class F

Category 7/Class F (ISO/IEC 11801:2002) specifies a frequency range of 1–600 MHz over
100 meters of fully shielded twisted-pair cabling. It encompasses four individually shielded
pairs inside an overall shield, called Shielded/Foiled Twisted Pair (S/FTP) or Foiled/Foiled
Twisted Pair (F/FTP). There is a Class Fa, based on the use of S/FTP cable to 1000 MHz. It
can support 10GBASE-T transmissions. With both types of cable, each twisted pair is
enclosed in foil. In S/FTP cable, all four pairs are encased in an overall metal braid. In
F/FTP, the four pairs are encased in foil.
POWER OVER ETHERNET
 POWER OVER ETHERNET

• There are four different PoE classes:

Type 1, Type 2, Type 3, and Type 4.

• We can categorize such types based on a variety of features, such as the standard they use,
their port power, and the devices one can use them for.

• The power per port for the different types of Ethernet ports will largely determine which
type best suits your application.
 POWER OVER ETHERNET (TYPE 1)

Name: PoE, 2-Pair PoE

Standard: IEEE 802.3af
Maximum port power: 15.4W

• PoE Type 1, also known simply as PoE or 2-pair PoE, comes from the original IEEE 802.3af
standard that came to completion in 2003.

• Type 1 PoE uses two pairs to connect several different types of lower-powered devices to a
network.

• When utilizing PoE Type 1, it can provide 15.4W of DC power to each PoE port and up to
12.95W of power for each device. Examples of devices that PoE Type 1 can support include static
surveillance cameras, wireless access points, and VoIP phones. It supports Cat3 cables or better.
 POWER OVER ETHERNET (TYPE 2)

Name: PoE+
Standard: IEEE 802.3at
Maximum port power: 30W

Like PoE Type 1, PoE Type 2 also utilizes 2-pair PoE. Its basis is the PoE+ or IEEE 802.3at Ethernet
standard, which the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers released in 2009.

The 802.3 af vs 802.3 at is a very common question amongst PoE types, so this should help explain
the difference.

IEEE 802.3at delivers up to 30W of power at the port level over an Ethernet twisted pair cable and
up to 25.5W of power to each device.

It connects higher-powered devices to a network, such as PTZ cameras, RFID readers, video IP
phones, and alarm systems. Because it is backward compatible, however, it can support the types of
devices typically supported by PoE Type 1 as well as devices supported by PoE Type 2.
 POWER OVER ETHERNET (TYPE 3)

Name: 4-pair PoE, 4P PoE, PoE++, UPOE

Standard: IEEE 802.3bt
Maximum port power: 60W

Also known as 4-pair PoE, 4PPoE, PoE++, or UPoE, Type 3 PoE uses all four pairs in a
twisted-pair copper cable to deliver power at the PD—unlike Type 1 and 2 which only use
two pairs.

This higher level of PoE adheres to the IEEE 802.3bt standard which came out in 2011.

As such, it provides up to 60W of power to each PoE port and up to 51W of power to each
device. Examples of devices that these higher levels of power support include multi-radio
wireless access points, PTZ cameras, building management devices, and video conferencing
equipment. It supports Cat5 cables or better.
 POWER OVER ETHERNET (TYPE 4)

Name: Higher-Power PoE

Standard: IEEE 802.3bt
Maximum port power: 100W

Commonly known as Class 4 PoE, higher-Power PoE, and Type 4 PoE offers the highest power
capabilities of all PoE types currently in existence.

This PoE type helps satisfy the growing power requirements of network devices and IoT.

Conforming to the newest IEEE 802.3bt standard, Type 4 PoE delivers 90W of power from the PSE
and up to 70W of input power at the PD to each device.

However, it has the potential to supply power up to 100W per port if necessary. Due to the high
quantities of power that it produces, Type 4 PoE or PoE Class 4 can support extremely power-
hungry devices such as laptops and flat screens. Supported cables include Cat5 cables or better.
 ETHERNET LAN SWITHCING

CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING NETWORK CONNECTED BY A FAST ETHERNET

F0/1 F0/3

F0/2 MAC : AAAA.AA00.0002

MAC : AAAA.AA00.0001 IP : [Link]
IP : [Link]
THE SWITCH CONTAINS A TABLE
CALLED SWITCHING TABLE

MAC : AAAA.AA00.0002
IP : [Link]
 ETHERNET LAN SWITHCING
When the message reaches
the switch from pc 1 the
switch mac address table
DES: PC 2
will automatically update
SRC:PC1 F0/3 itself with the interface
F0/1
connected to it :
PC- 1 PC- 3 dynamically learned mac
MAC : AAAA.AA00.0001 F0/2 MAC : AAAA.AA00.0002 address.
IP : [Link] IP : [Link]
MAC ADDRESS TABLE @SWITCH
MAC INTERFACE
.0001 F0/1

PC- 2
MAC : AAAA.AA00.0002
IP : [Link]
 ETHERNET LAN SWITCHING
Since the switch doesn’t
know the link to which the
DES:PC
DES: PC22 destination is assigned it
SRC:PC1
SRC:PC1 sends the frame to all its
F0/3 other links .this process is
F0/1
known as flooding and the
PC- 1 PC- 3 frame is called unknown
MAC : AAAA.AA00.0001 F0/2 MAC : AAAA.AA00.0002 unicast frame.
IP : [Link] IP : [Link]
MAC ADDRESS TABLE @SWITCH
MAC INTERFACE
.0001 F0/1

PC- 2
MAC : AAAA.AA00.0002 The pc on receiving the frame checks for the
IP : [Link] destination MAC address and analyze if the
frame is for it or not .if the MAC address
doesn’t match the packet is dropped.
 ETHERNET LAN SWITCHING
When PC 2 sends a reply to
the switch, It will update the
table with its MAC address
and corresponding
F0/3 interface.
F0/1

PC- 1 PC- 3
MAC : AAAA.AA00.0001 F0/2 MAC : AAAA.AA00.0002
IP : [Link] IP : [Link]
MAC ADDRESS TABLE @SWITCH
MAC INTERFACE
.0001 F0/1
DES: PC 2
SRC:PC1 .0002 F0/2
PC- 2
MAC : AAAA.AA00.0002
IP : [Link] Dynamically learned addresses are removed from
the table after 5 minutes of inactivity.
 ETHERNET LAN SWITCHING
PC- 3
MAC : AAAA.AA00.0003
IP : [Link]
PC- 1
MAC : AAAA.AA00.0001 F0/1
IP : [Link] F0/3
PC- 4
MAC : AAAA.AA00.0004
F0/2 ARP REQUEST IP : [Link]

SRC IP address: [Link]

PC- 2 DES IP address: [Link]
MAC : AAAA.AA00.0002
IP : [Link]
SRC MAC address: AAAA.AA00.0001
DES MAC address: [Link] (BROADCAST)

Consider the above network, when pc 1 sends a frame to pc 4 in a different lan network
the pc1 will not be aware of the mac address of the pc4 hence it creates an ARP request
and send it to the switch as shown in the diagram. On analyzing the ARP request and
response the switching tables are updated.
 SPEED AND DUPLEX AUTO NEGOTIATION

• Interface that have multiple speed factor have a default setting of auto speed and
auto duplex.

• Interfaces inform the connected devices of their capabilities to negotiate the best
speed and best duplex.

E F
E= 10 Mbps
F = 10 / 100 Mbps
Pc1 Pc 2 G = 10/100/1000 Mbps

Pc 3
 SPEED AND DUPLEX AUTO NEGOTIATION

• If auto negotiation is disabled on a device then switch will try to sense the speed in
which the device is operating and the type of communication.

• If sensing fails the switch will transmit the data at the lowest speed i.e : 10 Mbps

• If the speed of the node is sensed to be 10 or 100 Mbps then the communication is
half duplex , if the speed is 1000 Mbps or greater the the switch uses full duplex.

• When the switch detect the link speed and transmission mode , since the device are
set manually there is a chance for duplex mismatch to occur which causes
collisions.
 SUBNETTING (IP ADDRESSING)
CLASS FIRST OCTET FIRST ADDRESS RANGE PREFIX LENGTH
(BINARY) OCTET
RANGE
(DECIMAL)
A OXXXXXXX 0-127 [Link] – /8
[Link]
B 10XXXXXX 128-191 [Link] – /16
[Link]
C 110XXXXX 192-223 [Link] – /24
[Link]
D 1110XXXX 224-239 [Link] – -
[Link]
E 1111XXXX 240-255 [Link] – -
[Link]
 SUBNETTING

• In classfull addressing the Class A is addressed as /8, Class B as /16 and Class C as
/24 network

• This leads to wastage of address spaces eg. when the network has larger nodes than
255 nodes (Class C) but less than 65000 nodes (Class B).

• In classless addressing (cidr) this limitation was removed

• It helps to split larger network into smaller networks improving efficiency.

• Smaller networks are called subnets.

• Even if the network is separated to different subnet they are in the same broadcast
domain.
 SUBNETTING

• Each IP subnet consists of three types of IP addresses: IP addresses, a network

address, and a broadcast address.

• The network address is the first address of the IP subnet.

• The broadcast address is the last address of the IP subnet.

• All addresses between the network address and the broadcast address are IP
addresses.

• The usable number of network is calculated using the equation

2𝑛 - 2 = usable address (n = number of host bits in host address)

 SUBNETTING
USABLE SUBNET MASK BINARY CONVERSION USABLE ADDRESSES (2𝑛 - 2 )
ADDRESS

[Link]/24 [Link] 11111111.11111111.11111111.0000000 254 ADDRESSES

0
[Link]/25 [Link] 11111111.11111111.11111111.1000000 126 ADDRESSES
0
[Link]/26 [Link] 11111111.11111111.11111111.1100000 62 ADDRESSES
0
[Link]/27 [Link] 11111111.11111111.11111111.1110000 30 ADDRESSES
0
[Link]/28 [Link] 11111111.11111111.11111111.1111000 14 ADDRESSES
0
[Link]/29 [Link] 11111111.11111111.11111111.1111100 6 ADDRESSES
0
[Link]/30 [Link] 11111111.11111111.11111111.1111110 2 ADDRESSES
0
 SUBNETTING (CLASS C)

• Hence a CIDR address [Link]/30 will contain address from [Link] to [Link] (4 address – 2
for nodes , 1 for network and 1 for broadcast ).

• All other addresses from [Link] TO [Link] will be available for other subnet,

[Link] CIDR BINARY ADDRESS

ADDRESS
1 [Link] 11001011.00000000.01110001.00000000
2 [Link] 11001011.00000000.01110001.00000001
3 [Link] 11001011.00000000.01110001.00000010

4 [Link] 11001011.00000000.01110001.00000011
 SUBNETTING

For a router to router connection we can use the subnet [Link]/31 (2 addresses for each router)
 SUBNETTING
For a router to router connection we can use the subnet [Link]/31 (2 addresses for each router).

Q1) DIVIDE THE NETWORK GIVEN BELOW INTO 4 SUBNETS OF 45 HOST EACH.
 SUBNETTING
STEP 1 :

Identify the address number of subnets to be used using the formula

2𝑛 - 2 = usable address (n = number of host bits in host address)

STEP 2 :

Identify the network address and broadcast address of each subnet by identifying the host and network
addresses of the ip using binary value.

STEP 3 : once the binary value is identified change all host address to 1 to obtain the broadcast
address
Eg.
If we consider subnet 1 of [Link]/26
 SUBNETTING
Eg.
If we consider subnet 1 of [Link]/26

Step 1 : Then its network address is the first value i.e [Link]/26

192 = 11000000 ; 168 = 10101000 ; 1= 00000001 ; 0 =00000000

[Link]/26 = 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000000 (network address)

STEP 2 : broadcast address = 11000000.10101000.00000001.00111111 = [Link]

Hence first subnet will be from [Link] to [Link]

second subnet – [Link] to [Link]
third subnet – [Link] to [Link]
fourth subnet -[Link] to [Link]
 SUBNETTING
Eg. Alternate method :
If we consider subnet 1 of [Link]/26

[Link]/26 = 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000000

Consider the last octet : 00000000

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Since the network address ends in 64 value .each subnet will be

having 64 node addresses.
 BROADCAST IN SUBNET
PC- 1
MAC : AAAA.AA00.0001
IP : [Link] PC- 3
MAC : AAAA.AA00.0003
IP : [Link]

SUBNET 1 SUBNET 2

PC- 4
MAC : AAAA.AA00.0004
IP : [Link]

PC- 2
MAC : AAAA.AA00.0002
IP : [Link]

SRC IP:[Link]
DEST. IP:[Link]
SRC MAC :AAAA.AA00.0001
DEST MAC:[Link]
SUBNETTING
 CISCO CLI (SWITCH)

CISCO Switch Configuration using CLI

1) The following command help to obtain

the details of connection to a switch

switch# show ip interface brief

 CISCO CLI (SWITCH)

CISCO Switch Configuration using CLI

1) The following command help to obtain

the status of connection to a switch

switch#show interface status

 CISCO CLI (SWITCH)

CISCO Switch Configuration using CLI

1) For identifying the speed of a link

connected to a switch

Switch#conf t
Switch(config)#int F0/1
Switch(config-if)#speed ?
 CISCO CLI (SWITCH)

CISCO Switch Configuration using CLI

1) For selecting the speed of a link

connected to a switch

Switch#conf t
Switch(config)#int F0/1
Switch(config-if)#speed 100
 CISCO CLI (SWITCH)

CISCO Switch Configuration using CLI

1) For identifying the type of txn of a link

connected to a switch

Switch#conf t
Switch(config)#int F0/1
Switch(config-if)#speed 100
Switch(config-if)#duplex ?
 CISCO CLI (SWITCH)

CISCO Switch Configuration using CLI

1) For switching off the interfaces

administratively

Switch#conf t
Switch(config)#interface range Fa0/3 – 24
Switch(config-if-range)#shutdown
 CISCO CLI (SWITCH)

CISCO Switch Configuration using CLI

1) For switching on the interfaces

administratively

Switch#conf t
Switch(config)#int range Fa0/3 – 4
Switch(config-if-range)#no shut
CISCO CLI (SWITCH)

1) For auto negotiated links the interfaces

information is obtained by :

Switch#show interfaces Fa0/1

 CISCO CLI (SWITCH)

CISCO Switch Configuration using CLI

Runts = frames smaller that minimum frame size (64 bytes)

Giants = frames greater than maximum frame size (1518 bytes)
CRC = error checking code in frame tail = number of frame error.
Frame = frames with incorrect format
Input errors = total counter errors
 VLAN (VIRTUAL LAN)

• Virtual LAN (VLAN) is a concept in which we can divide the devices logically on layer 2 (data link
layer).

• Subnetting do not divide the broadcast domain but the broadcast domain can be divided by switches using
the concept of VLAN.

• A broadcast domain is a network segment, in which if a device broadcast a packet then all the devices in
the same broadcast domain will receive it.

• The devices in the same broadcast domain will receive all the broadcast packets but it is limited to
switches only as routers don’t forward out the broadcast packet.

• To forward out the packets to different VLAN (from one VLAN to another) or broadcast domains, inter
VLAN routing is needed.

• Through VLAN, different small-size sub-networks are created which are comparatively easy to handle.
 VLAN (VIRTUAL LAN)

• A LAN can be split into multiple VLAN on the switch interfaces.

• The interfaces are configured to be in a specific VLAN to which the end devices are connected

• Each VLAN is considered as a separate VLAN by the Switches.

• Inter VLAN routing is done by router and not switch.

• For creating a VLAN we need to set the corresponding interfaces as access port.

• Access Port : It is a switch port which belongs to a single VLAN that usually connect to end host like PC.

• Trunk Port: Switch port which carry multiple VLAN are called trunk ports.

• A switch port connected to an end host should enter access mode by default.
 VLAN (VIRTUAL LAN)

• To understand the number of default vlan in a switch type the command : show vlan brief

• Initially the switch has only 1 vlan with all interfaces (Ports) in the same VLAN.
 V LAN (VIRTUAL LAN)

VLAN ranges: a total of 4096 VLAN are possible according to VID number

VLAN 0, 4095: These are reserved VLAN which cannot be seen or used.

VLAN 1: It is the default VLAN of switches. By default, all switch ports are in VLAN.
This VLAN can’t be deleted or edit but can be used.

VLAN 2-1001: This is a normal VLAN range. We can create, edit and delete these VLAN.

VLAN 1002-1005: These are CISCO defaults for fddi and token rings. These VLAN can’t
be deleted.

Vlan 1006-4094: This is the extended range of Vlan

 V LAN (VIRTUAL LAN)

• To create a vlan for a group of interface we execute the above commands

 V LAN (VIRTUAL LAN)

• To create a vlan for a group of interface we execute the above commands

• Switchport mode access : creates an access port for all interfaces within the range (it is automatically
created when the devices are connected but we can also )

• Switchport access vlan : create the vlan with the selected interface
 V LAN (VIRTUAL LAN)

• The above figure shows the vlan10 which was created.

 V LAN (VIRTUAL LAN)

• To change the name of vlan in description the above value is entered.

 VLAN (VIRTUAL LAN) – ACCESS PORTS
VLAN 10

VLAN 10

VLAN 20
 VLAN (VIRTUAL LAN) – TRUNK PORTS

• A trunk port is usually used for connecting large number of vlans over a single interface.

• All vlan are connected to the interface through a single physical link

• All packets to the different vlan travel in through the same link.

• To identify the specific VLAN to which the packet belong switches add ‘tag’ to all the frames to identify
the particular VLAN to which it belong.

• Trunk port are tagged port and Access port are untagged port.

• 2 main trunking protocols :

• ISL (Inter Switch Link) : created by CISCO not currently used.
• IEEE 802.1Q (dot1Q)
 VLAN (VIRTUAL LAN)

NORMAL ETHERNET FRAME

PREAMBLE SFD DEST SRC MAC TYPE DATA FCS

MAC

DOT1Q ETHERNET FRAME

PREAMBLE SFD DEST SRC 802.1Q TYPE DATA FCS

MAC MAC TAG
 VLAN (VIRTUAL LAN)

PREAMBLE SFD DEST SRC 802.1Q TYPE DATA FCS

MAC MAC TAG
• The DOT1Q tag is a 4 byte data tag that is inserted in the Ethernet frame between SRC Mac address
and type.

• They contain 2 fields

• TAG PROTOCOL IDENTIFIER (TPID) – 16 BITS

• TAG CONTROL INFORMATION (TCI) - 16 BITS (PCP,DEI,VID)
16 BITS 3 BITS 1 BIT 12 BITS

TPID PCP DEI VID

• PCP : PRIORITY CODE POINT

• DEI : DROP ELIGBLE INDICATOR
• VID : VLAN ID
 VLAN (VIRTUAL LAN)

• TPID is a 16 bit [Link] is always set to a value 0x8100. it denotes that the frame is a DOT1Q tagged
frame.

• PCP is 3 bits. Its used for class of service so as to prioritize the traffic in a congested [Link] helps to
classify and manage network traffic.

• DEI is 1 bit data used for indicating that the frame can be dropped or not if the network is congested.1 for
dropping and 0 for not dropping the frame.

• VID is a 12 bit frame used for identifying the VLAN to which the frame belongs. Hence a total 0f 4096
vlans (2^12).

• VLAN 0 – used for QoS ,

• VLAN 4096 – used for VTP pruning.

• VTP (VLAN Trunk Protocol) pruning is the method to optimize the network bandwidth by restricting
broadcast or multicast txn to only those trunk ports that can reach all active devices in the network.
 NATIVE VLAN

• Native VLAN is generally a dot1Q conception elaborated for backward compatibility with devices that
don’t endorse VLANs.

• Frames that are derived from the native VLAN are not tagged when transferred out on the trunk links.

• Frames entered untagged on the trunk links are set to the native VLAN.

• VLANs can be as multitudinous as there are.1 Q trunks on the switch

Advantages of Native VLAN:

• The excellent activity is to configure the local VLAN ID to VLAN 666 and to make assured that this
VLAN is not applied everywhere with inside the network

• Any of the ports should not be assigned to the native VLAN.

 NATIVE VLAN

• There are 2 methods for configuring native vlan on the router :

• Command : encapsulation dot1q vlan id native

• Configure the IP address for the native VLAN on the router’s physical interface
 INTER VLAN ROUTING

• Devices on separate VLANs are essentially isolated from each other.

• Inter VLAN routing is the process of enabling communication between devices on

different VLANs within the same network

• There are 3 main methods for Inter VLAN routing

• Router on a Stick (ROAS)

• Multilayer Switches ( SVI –Switch Virtual Interface)

• Jugad Technique
 Router On A Stick (ROAS)

• Router-on-a-stick (ROAS) is a technique to connect a router with a single physical link to a switch and
perform IP routing between VLANs.

• This physical link will appear to be configured as a trunk port allowing all VLANs that are going to be
routed.
 ROAS
• Here is a topology in which there is a router and a switch and some end hosts. 2 different VLANs have been
created on the switch.

• The router’s interface is divided into 2 sub-interfaces (as there are 2 different VLANs) which will acts as a default
gateway to their respective VLANs.

• Then router will perform Inter VLAN Routing and the VLANs will communicate with each other.

• Consider the connection to the router to be on a link F0/0 . By creating a trunk we logicaly
divide the link into two parts for two VLANS. i.e F0/0.1 and F0/0.2.