Vector Space

Field: Quick Recall

Field

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A field is a non-empty set F together with two binary operations:

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• Addition: + : F × F → F

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• Multiplication: · : F × F → F IT
satisfying the following axioms.
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1. Addition Axiom
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2. Multiplication Axiom
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3. Distributive Axiom
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Axiom: Addition
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For all a, b, c ∈ F:
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1. a + b ∈ F
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(Closure)
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2. (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) (Associativity)
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3. ∃ 0 ∈ F such that a + 0 = a (Identity)

4. ∀a ∈ F, ∃ − a ∈ F such that a + (−a) = 0

5. a + b = b + a (Commutativity)

Note: (F, +) is an abelian/commutative group

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Axiom: Multiplication
For all a, b, c ∈ F:

1. ab ∈ F (Closure)

2. (ab)c = a(bc) (Associativity)

3. ∃ 1 ∈ F, 1 ̸= 0, such that a · 1 = a (Identity)

4. ∀a ∈ F \ {0}, ∃a−1 ∈ F such that aa−1 = 1 (Inverse)

5. ab = ba (Commutativity)

Note: (F∗ , ·) is an abelian/commutative group, where F∗ = F \ {0}

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Axiom: Distributivity Law

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For all a, b, c ∈ F,

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a(b + c) = ab + ac IT
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Notation
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We use (F, +, ·) to denote a field.

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One-Line Definition: Field

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A field is a commutative ring with identity in which every non-zero element

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has a multiplicative inverse.

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Example 1. Under the usual addition and multiplication

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• Rational numbers: Q
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• Real numbers: R

• Complex numbers: C

• Finite field: Zp , where p is prime

Example 2. Under the usual addition and multiplication, the set of integers
Z is not a field.

• No multiplicative inverse for 2, 3, . . .

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Vector Spaces over a Field
Vector Space
A non-empty set V is called a vector space over a field F (R or C) if:

• Vector addition + : V × V → V

• Scalar multiplication · : F × V → V

satisfy the following axioms:

1. Axiom of addition

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2. Axiom of scalar multiplication.

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Vector Space Axioms (Addition)

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For all u, v, w ∈ V :

1. u + v = v + u T (Commutative)
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2. (u + v) + w = u + (v + w) (Associative)
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3. ∃ 0 ∈ V such that u + 0 = u (Zero vector)

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4. ∀u ∈ V, ∃ − u ∈ V such that u + (−u) = 0 (inverse)

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Note: (V, +) is an abelian group

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Vector Space Axioms (Scalar Multiplication)

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For all u, v ∈ V and α, β ∈ F:

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1. α(u + v) = αu + αv (Multiplication is Distributive)

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2. (α + β)u = αu + βu (Addition is Distributive)

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3. α(βu) = (αβ)u

4. 1u = u

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Notation
• We say: V is a vector space over the field F.
• We use (V, +, ·) for vector space.
• We also use V (F) for vector space.
Example 3. Consider Rn = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) : xi ∈ R} under component-wise
addition and and scalar multiplication.
• (Rn , +) is an abelian group.
• Scalar multiplication satisfies all axioms.
• So, (Rn , +, ·) is a vector space over R.

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• The vector space Rn is popularly known as Euclidean Space.

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Example 4. Consider Cn = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) : xi ∈ C} under component-wise

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addition and and scalar multiplication.

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• (Cn , +) is an abelian group. T
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• Scalar multiplication satisfies all axioms.
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• So, (Cn , +, ·) is a vector space over C.

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Example 5. Consider V = Mm×n (R) under the matrix addition and matrix
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scalar multiplication.
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• (V, +) is an abelian group.

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• Scalar multiplication satisfies all axioms.

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• So, (V, +, ·) is a vector space over R.

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Example 6. Let V = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0} under usual addition and

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scalar multiplication.
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Question! Is it a vector space? Think!

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• Failure: Additive Inverse.

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• Also fails: Scalar multiplication by negative numbers.

Example 7. Let V = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : y = x + 1} in R2 .
• Failure: Zero Vector.
• Proof: For a vector space, (0, 0) must be in the set.
• At x = 0, y = 0 + 1 = 1. Since (0, 0) is not on the line, this is not a
vector space.
• Failure: Closure.
• (0, 1) and (1, 2) are in the set. Their sum (1, 3) is NOT (3 ̸= 1 + 1).

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Subspace
Let V be a vector space over a field F. A subset W ⊆ V is called a subspace
of V if W itself is a vector space under the same operations over F.
Example 8. • We know that R3 is a vector space over R.
• Then
W = {(x, y, 0) : x, y ∈ R}
is a subspace of R3 .

Powerful Tool: Subspace Criterion

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Let V be a vector space and W ⊆ V . Then W is a subspace of V if and only

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if:

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1. 0 ∈ W (Zero Vector)

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2. u, v ∈ W ⇒ u + v ∈ W (Addition of two vectors)
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3. α ∈ F, u ∈ W ⇒ αu ∈ W (Scalar multiplication of vector)
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Equivalent Form
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Let V be a vector space and W ⊆ V . Then W is a subspace of V if and only

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if:
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1. 0 ∈ W (Zero Vector)
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2. α ∈ F, u, v ∈ W ⇒ u + αv ∈ W (Linear Combination)
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Example 9. Let V = Mn×n be the vectors space of all n × n real matrices.

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Let W = {A ∈ V : A = AT }. That is, the set of all symmetric matrices.

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Checking:
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• Zero: The zero matrix O is symmetric (OT = O). ✓

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• Addition: If A, B are symmetric:

(A + B)T = AT + B T = A + B

The sum is symmetric. ✓

• Scalar: (cA)T = c(AT ) = cA. ✓

Conclusion: Symmetric matrices form a subspace of Mn×n .

Example 10. We know R3 is a vector space over R. Consider the set W =
{(x, y, z) ∈ R3 : x + y + z = 1}.
Checking:

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 • Test the Zero Vector:
• For (0, 0, 0) to be in W , it must satisfy the equation:
0 + 0 + 0 = 1 =⇒ 0 = 1 (False!)

• Result: W is NOT a subspace.

Example 11. We know R2 is a vector space over R.

• Is the set of all points lie on x-axis form a subspace of R2 ?

• Is the set of all points lie on y-axis form a subspace of R2 ?

Example 12. Is the set of all real skew-symmetric matrices form a subspace

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of Mn×n (R)?

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Example 13. Let W be the set of vectors in R2 that lie on either the x-axis

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or the y-axis. That is

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W = {(x, 0) ∪ (0, y) : where x, y ∈ R}.
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• Zero Vector: It is there inside W .
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• Check Closure under Addition: Take u = (1, 0) (on x-axis) and

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v = (0, 1) (on y-axis), but

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u + v = (1, 1) ∈
/W
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Conclusion: W is NOT a subspace.

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Important Results
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The union of two subspaces is rarely a subspace.

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• For example, union of x-axis and y-axis in R2 is not a subspace.

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Theorem
The intersection of two subspaces is always a subspace.

What qualifies as a subspace of R2 ?

• The Origin {0, 0, 0} alone (Zero Subspace).
• Any line passing through (0, 0, 0).
• The entire space R2 itself.

Note: These are the only subspaces of R2 ?

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What qualifies as a subspace of R3 ?
• The Origin {0, 0, 0} alone (Zero Subspace).

• Any line passing through (0, 0, 0).

• Any plane passing through (0, 0, 0).

• The entire space R3 itself.

Anything else—circles, spheres, or shifted planes—fails the closure or zero

vector tests.

Exercise 1. Determine if W is a subspace of V . If not, which axiom fails?

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1. W = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | x = 2y}

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2. W = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | x2 + y 2 ≤ 1} (The Unit Disk)

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3. W = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | x + y + z = 0}
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4. W = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | x, y, z ∈ Z} (Integers)
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Exercise 2. Let V = Mn×n (R) (All 2 × 2 real matrices). Check for subspaces:
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1. W = {A ∈ M2×2 (R) | det(A) = 0} (Singular Matrices)

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2. W = {A ∈ M2×2 (R) | A is Upper Triangular }

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3. W = {A ∈ M2×2 (R) | trace(A) = 0}

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4. W = {A ∈ M2×2 (R) | A2 = A} (Idempotent Matrices)

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Discussion: Why does the sum of two singular matrices often fail to be
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singular?
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Exercise 3. Let V = P2 (Polynomials of degree ≤ 2). Check for subspaces:

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1. W = {p(x) ∈ P2 | p(0) = 0}

2. W = {p(x) ∈ P2 | p(1) = 2}

3. W = {p(x) ∈ P2 | p′ (x) is constant }

4. W = {p(x) ∈ P2 | p(x) = ax2 + c} (Even powers only)

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Linear Combination
A vector v is said to be a linear combination of vectors v1 , v2 , . . . , vn if
there exist scalars c1 , c2 , . . . , cn such that:

v = c1 v1 + c2 v2 + · · · + cn vn

• The scalars ci are called coefficients or weights.

• We say: v is in span of {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn }.

Example 14. Let v1 = (1, 0), v2 = (0, 1) ∈ R2 .

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(3, 4) = 3(1, 0) + 4(0, 1)

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=⇒ w = 3v1 + 4v2 .

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• w is a linear combination of vectors v1 , v2 .

Example 15. • We know

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IT
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2(1, 0, 1) + (0, 1, 1) + 5(0, 1, 0) = (2, 6, 3)

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• So, (2, 6, 3) is a linear combination of

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{(1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 1), (0, 1, 0)}

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Example 16. Express w = (9, 4) as a linear combination of u = (1, 2) and

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v = (3, −1).
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Solution: Assume that c1 (1, 2) + c2 (3, −1) = (9, 4). Form a System of Equa-
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tions
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c1 + 3c2 = 9
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2c1 − c2 = 4
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Solving above two equations, we get c1 = 3, c2 = 2.

Final expression:
w = 3u + 2v

Example 17. Is P (x) = 3x2 + 2x + 5 a linear combination of the set S =

{x2 , x, 1}?
Answer: Yes.
P (x) = c1 (x2 ) + c2 (x) + c3 (1)
where c1 = 3, c2 = 2, c3 = 5.

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Spanning Set
Let V be a vector space over the field F and S = {v1 , . . . , vn } be a set of
vectors in V . The Span of S is defined by
 
X n 
Span(S) = ci vi : ci ∈ F
 
i=1

Results
• The Span of any set S is a subspace of V .
• Span(V ) = V .

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Example 18. Given S = {(1, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1)}, does S span the vector b =

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(2, 5, 3)?

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Solution: We check if c1 (1, 1, 0) + c2 (0, 1, 1) = (2, 5, 3) is consistent.

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1. c1 + 0 = 2 =⇒ c1 = 2 IT
2. c1 + c2 = 5
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3. 0 + c2 = 3 =⇒ c2 = 3
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Verification: Substitute c1 , c2 into equation (2):

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2 + 3 = 5 (True!)
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The system is consistent; therefore, b ∈ Span(S).

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Example 19. Does S = {(1, 0), (0, 1)} span R2 ?

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Answer:
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• We need to check Span(S) = R2 .

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• We know that Span(S) is a subspace of R2 . That is Span(S) ⊆ R2 .

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• We need to prove R2 ⊆ Span(S).

• Let (a, b) ∈ R2 . Clearly
(a, b) = a(1, 0) + b(0, 1).

• So, (a, b) ∈ Span(S). Thus, R2 ⊆ Span(S).

• Hence, Span(S) = R2 .

Notation
• The S = {(1, 0), (0, 1)} spans R2
• We say: S = {(1, 0), (0, 1)} generates R2

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Span of an Infinite Set
Let S be an infinite subset of a vector space V over F. The Span of S is
defined by  
X k 
+
span(S) = ci vi : k ∈ Z , vi ∈ S, ci ∈ F
 
i=1

• Crucial Note: We never sum infinitely many vectors in basic linear

algebra. The index k must be a finite integer.

Example 20. Consider the infinite set S = {1, x, x2 , x3 , . . . , xn , . . . }.

• What is in the Span? Any polynomial p(x) = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0 .

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• Example: f (x) = 5x10 − πx2 + 7. This is a finite combination of

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{x10 , x2 , 1}.

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x2
• What is NOT in the Span? The function ex = 1 + x + 2!
+ ....
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Why? To form ex , you need infinitely many terms from S. Therefore,
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ex ∈
/ span(S) in the purely algebraic sense.
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Linearly Independent (LI)

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A set of vectors {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } is Linearly Independent (LI) if the vector

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equation:
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c1 v1 + c2 v2 + · · · + cn vn = 0
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has only the trivial solution:

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c1 = 0, c2 = 0 = · · · = cn = 0.
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Linearly Dependent (LD)

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If there exist scalars c1 , c2 , . . . , cn (not all zero) such that the sum equals 0,
the set is Linearly Dependent.

Testing for LI/LD: The Rank Method

1. Construct a matrix A where vectors are rows.

2. Perform row operations to reach Row Echelon Form (REF).

3. Compare the Rank (r) with the Number of Vectors (k).

• If Rank = No. of Vectors, the set is Linearly Independent

• If Rank < No. of Vectors, set is Linearly Dependent.

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Example 21. Check if S = {(1, 2, 1),(2, 1, 0), (1, −1,
 −1)} is LI.
1 2 1
Answer: Matrix Formulation: A = 2 1 0
 
1 −1 −1
     
1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1
 R2 →R2 −2R1   R →R −R2 
2 1 0  −−−−−−−→ 0 −3 −2 −−3−−−3−−→ 0 −3 −2
 
R3 →R3 −R1
1 −1 −1 0 −3 −2 0 0 0

• As Rank(A) = 2. Since Rank(A) < Number of Vectors (3), the set is

Linearly Dependent.

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Determinant Shortcut

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If you have exactly n vectors in Rn (a square matrix):

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• If det(A) ̸= 0 =⇒ The set is Linearly Independent. (Rank(A) = n)

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• If det(A) = 0 =⇒ The set is Linearly Dependent. (Rank(A) < n)
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Warning! This shortcut only works for square matrices. If you have 2
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vectors in R3 , you must use the Rank method.

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Important Results
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1. The Zero Vector: Any set containing 0 is always LD.

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2. Size Constraint: In Rn , any set with more than n vectors is always

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LD.
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3. Subset Rule:
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• If a set is LI, all its subsets are LI.

• If a set is LD, any larger set containing it is also LD.
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Infinite Set
A set S ⊂ V (possibly infinite) is:
• Linearly Independent (LI): If every finite subset of S is linearly
independent.
• Linearly Dependent (LD): If there exists at least one finite subset of
S that is linearly dependent.

Note:
Pn Linear combinations in standard vector spaces are always finite sums:
i=1 ci vi = 0.

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Example 22. Consider the space of all polynomials P (x) and the set:

S = {1, x, x2 , x3 , . . . , xn , . . . }

• Pick any finite subset, e.g., {1, x2 , x5 }.

• Solve c1 (1) + c2 (x2 ) + c3 (x5 ) = 0 for all x.

• Since a polynomial is zero if and only if all coefficients are zero, we find
c1 = c2 = c3 = 0.

S is an Infinite Linearly Independent set.

Example 23. Consider the set S in R2 :

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S = {(1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), . . . }

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• We look for one finite subset that fails the test.

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• Take the subset S ′ = {(1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1)}.

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• We can write: 1(1, 0) + 1(0, 1) − 1(1, 1) = (0, 0).
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Since we found a dependent finite subset, the entire infinite set S is Linearly
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Dependent.
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Basis of a Vector Space

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A set of vectors B = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } is a Basis for V if it satisfies two condi-

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tions:
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1. B is Linearly Independent.
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2. span(B) = V .
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That is, every vector in the space can be represented as:

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v = c1 v1 + c2 v2 + · · · + cn vn

Dimension
The Dimension of a vector space V , denoted dim(V ), is the number of vectors
in its basis.

Finite and Infinite Vector Space

Let V be a vector space over F.
• If dim(V ) is finite, then V is a finite dimensional vector space.

• If dim(V ) is infinite, then V is a infinite dimensional vector space.

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Working Rule: The Row Echelon Method
To find a Basis and Dimension from a given set of vectors:

1. Step 1: Construct a matrix A using the given vectors as rows.

2. Step 2: Reduce A to Row Echelon Form (REF) using Gaussian

elimination.

3. Step 3: The non-zero rows of the REF are the basis vectors.

4. Step 4: The number of non-zero rows is the dimension (Rank).

Example 24. Find basis and dimension of vector space spanned by

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S = {(1, 2, 1), (2, 9, 0), (3, 3, 4)}

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Solution: Form the matrix:

Bh
   
1 2 1 1 2 1
IT
 R2 −2R1 ,R3 −3R1 
A = 2 9 0 −−−−−−−−−−→ 0 5 −2
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 
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3 3 4 0 −3 1
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 
1 2 1
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R3 + 3 R2 
−−−−5−→ 0 5 −2 

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0 0 −0.2
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• So, the basis is {(1, 2, 1), (0, 5, −2), (0, 0, −0.2)}.

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• And dim = 3
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Important Results
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• Bases are not Unique for a vector space.

• Invariance Theorem: All bases for V have the same size.

• Expansion Theorem: Any LI set can be extended to a basis.

Important Note
If dim(V ) = n, then n + 1 vectors are always LD, and n − 1 vectors can
never span V .

• Basis is the minimal spanning set.

• Basis is the maximal LI set.

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Standard Basis: Definition
The standard basis of a vector space is the simplest basis obtained by choosing
vectors with:

• one coordinate equal to 1,

• all remaining coordinates equal to 0.

It depends on the structure of the vector space.

Standard Basis of Rn
The standard basis of Rn is

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E = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en },

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where

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e1 = (1, 0, 0, . . . , 0),
IT
e2 = (0, 1, 0, . . . , 0),
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..
.
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en = (0, 0, 0, . . . , 1).
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Each vector has exactly one entry equal to 1. So, dim(Rn ) = n.

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Example 25. The standard basis of R3 is {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}.
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Check:
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 
1 0 0
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• The matrix A = 0 1 0 has 3 LI rows.

 
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0 0 1
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• So, it forms a basis and dim R3 = 3.

• Every element (a, b, c) can be written as

(a, b, c) = ae1 + be2 + ce3 .

Standard Basis of R2
The standard basis is
e1 = (1, 0), e2 = (0, 1).
Any vector (a, b) ∈ R2 can be written as

(a, b) = a(1, 0) + b(0, 1).

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Standard Basis of M2×2 (R)
The standard basis is
 ! ! ! !
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
 
, , , .
 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 

Any matrix !
a b
c d
can be written as a linear combination of these matrices.

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Exercise 4. 1. Write the standard basis of R4 .

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2. Express (3, −2, 1) using the standard basis of R3 .

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3. Find the standard basis of M3×1 (R).
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The ”Half-Work” Theorem
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Let V be a vector space of dim(V ) = n, and a set S with exactly n vectors.

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Then S is a basis if it satisfies either of the two requirements.

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• Linearly Independent (LI)

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• S spans the vector space.

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Practical Advantage:
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• To prove n vectors form a basis, you only need to check Linear Inde-
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pendence.
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• If the vectors are LI, they must span the space.

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Important Theorem
A set of exactly n vectors in Rn is a basis if and only if it is

• linearly independent, or

• spanning Rn .

Hence, when the number of vectors is n, checking only one condition is suffi-
cient.

Example 26. Let S = {(1, 2), (3, 5)} in R2 . Here, n = 2 and |S| = 2.
Check for LI:

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 • Since (1, 2) is not a scalar multiple of (3, 5), the set is Linearly Inde-
pendent.

• The set S is a basis of R2 .

Example 27. Check for the basis of vectors in R3 :

v1 = (1, 0, 2), v2 = (0, 1, −1), v3 = (0, 0, 1)

We check whether {v1 , v2 , v3 } is linearly independent.

Solution: Assume a1 (1, 0, 2) + a2 (0, 1, −1) + a3 (0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 0)

• The only solution is

a1 = a2 = a3 = 0

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Hence, {v1 , v2 , v3 } is linearly independent.

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• So, it is a basis.

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Example 28. Consider the set in R2 :
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S = {(1, 0), (1, 1)}
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We check whether S spans R2 .

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Answer: Let (x, y) ∈ R2 . We try to write:

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(x, y) = a(1, 0) + b(1, 1)

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(x, y) = (a + b, b)
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Comparing components:
r in

b = y, a=x−y
nee

• For every (x, y) ∈ R2 , suitable scalars a and b exist.

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• Hence, S spans R2 .
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• Since S has exactly 2 vectors,

• S is a basis of R2 .

Example 29. Check for basis of vectors in R3 :

(1, 2, 0), (0, 1, 1), (2, 3, 1)

Answer: Form the matrix:

 
1 0 2
A = 2 1 3
 
0 1 1

16
 • det(A) = 2 ̸= 0, so vectors are LI.

• It is a basis of R3 .
Example 30. R over R
• Any a ∈ R can be written as a = a · 1.

• Basis: {1}, Dimension: 1

Example 31. R2 over R
• Any element (a, b) = a(1, 0) + b(0, 1)

• Standard Basis: {(1, 0), (0, 1)}, Dimension: 2

26
20
Example 32. C over R (Reals as scalars)

l
pa
• Any z ∈ C can be expressed as z = a · 1 + i · b

o
Bh
• Basis: {1, i}, Dimension: 2
T
II
Example 33. C over C (Complex as scalars)
-I
II

• Any z ∈ C can be expressed as z = z · 1

s
ic

• Basis: {1}, Dimension: 1.

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m

Example 34. C2 over C

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at

• Any (z1 , z2 ) ∈ C2 can be expressed as (z1 , z2 ) = z1 (1, 0) + z2 (0, 1).

M
g

• Basis: {(1, 0), (0, 1)}, Dimension: 2

r in
ee

Example 35. C2 over R

n
gi

• Any (z1 , z2 ) ∈ C2 can be expressed as

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I:

(z1 , z2 ) = (a1 + ib1 , a2 + ib2 ) = a1 (1, 0) + b1 (i, 0) + a2 (0, 1) + b2 (0, i).

H

• Basis: {((1, 0), (i, 0), (0, 1), (0, i)}, Dimension: 4
Example 36. The space of polynomials of degree at most n.
• Example: P2 [x] (Quadratic polynomials)

• General form: p(x) = ax2 + bx + c

• Standard Basis: {1, x, x2 }

• Dimension: n + 1
Example 37. The space of all m × n matrices with entries in R.

17
 • Basis: The set of matrices Eij having a 1 at position (i, j) and 0 else-
where.
• Example M2×2 :
 ! ! ! !
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
 
, , ,
 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 

• Dimension: m × n (for M2×2 , dim = 4).

Example 38. Consider the subspace of symmetric 2 × 2 matrices (A = AT ):
!
a b
A=
b c

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20
• Constraint: The off-diagonal elements must be equal.

l
pa
• Basis:

o
 ! ! !

Bh
1 0 0 1 0 0
 
, ,
 0 0 1 0 0 1  T
II
-I

• Dimension: 3
II

Exercise 5. 1. What is the dimension of the space of all symmetric ma-

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ic

trices of order n?
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m

2. What is the dimension of the space of all skew-symmetric matrices of

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order n?
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M

3. What is the dimension of Q(R)?

g
in

4. What is the dimension of R(C)?

r
nee

5. What is the dimension of (M2×2 (R))(R)?

gi
En

6. What is the dimension of (M2×2 (C))(R)?

I:

7. What is the dimension of (M2×2 (R))(C)?

H

Coordinate Representation
Let B = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } be a basis of V . For v ∈ V , if
v = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn ,
then a1 , a2 , . . . , an are called the coordinates of v with respect to B.
 
a1
 a2 
[v]B =  .. 
 
.
an

18
Theorem
Let B = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } be a basis of V . Then every vector v ∈ V has a
unique coordinate representation with respect to B.
Example 39. The standard basis of Rn is
E = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }
where
e1 = (1, 0, . . . , 0), e2 = (0, 1, . . . , 0), . . . , en = (0, 0, . . . , 1)
For v = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ),  
x1

26
 x2 
[v]E =  .. 
 

20
.

al
xn

op
Bh
Example 40. Let B = {(1, 1), (1, −1)} and v = (2, 0). Find [v]B .
Answer: Assume
IT
(2, 0) = a(1, 1) + b(1, −1).
II
II-

Then
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(2, 0) = (a + b, a − b).
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Equating components:
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(
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a+b=2
⇒ a = 1, b = 1.
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a−b=0
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!
1
ee

[v]B =
in

1
ng
:E

Example 41. Let

B = {(1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0)}
HI

and
v = (2, 1, 3).
Find [v]B .
Answer:  
2
[v]B = 1
 
0

Exercise 6. 1. Find the coordinates of (3, 2) with respect to {(1, 2), (2, 1)}.
2. Let B = {(1, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1)}. Find [(1, 2, 3)]B .
3. Write (1, 0) in the basis {(1, 1), (1, −1)}.

19
Polynomial Spaces Pn (x)
For the space of polynomials of degree ≤ n, the standard basis is:
B = {1, x, x2 , . . . , xn }
Example 42. Consider P2 (x). Any quadratic polynomial p(x) = ax2 + bx + c
is a linear combination of the base elements.
Crucial Result:
• The dimension of Pn (x) is n + 1.
• This is because we must include the constant term x0 = 1.

Matrix Spaces Mm×n (R)

26
20
For m × n matrices, the basis elements Eij have a 1 at the (i, j) position.
For M2×2 :

al
op
" # " # " # " #
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

Bh
E11 = , E12 = , E21 = , E22 =
0 0 0 0 1 0IT 0 1
• Dimension: m × n.
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" #
a b
ics

• Any matrix is aE11 + bE12 + cE21 + dE22 .

c d
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m
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Finite-Dimensional Vector Space

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A vector space V is called finite-dimensional if it has a basis consisting of

g
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a finite number of vectors.

If V has a basis with n vectors, we say:
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dim(V ) = n
:E

If no such finite basis exists, V is called infinite-dimensional.

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Example 43. • Rn has dimension n

• The space of all m × n matrices has dimension mn
• The space of polynomials of degree ≤ k has dimension k + 1
Each of these spaces has a finite basis.
The standard basis of R3 is:
{(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}

Hence,
dim(R3 ) = 3
Any basis of R3 must contain exactly 3 vectors.

20
Polynomial Space
Consider
P2 = {a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 | a0 , a1 , a2 ∈ R}
A basis is:
{1, x, x2 }
Therefore,
dim(P2 ) = 3

Finite-Dimensional
• Has a finite basis

26
20
• Every spanning set contains a basis

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pa
• Every LI set can be extended to a basis

o
Bh
T
II
Infinite-Dimensional
-I
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• No finite basis
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at

• Example: space of all polynomials

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• Example: space of all continuous functions

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Dimension of Subspaces
g
rin

Theorem 0.1. If W is a subspace of a finite-dimensional vector space V ,

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then
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dim(W ) ≤ dim(V )
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I:

Equality holds if and only if W = V .

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Example 44. Let V = R3 and

W = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | x + y + z = 0}.

Find the basis and dimension of the subspace W .

Answer: A basis of W is:

{(1, −1, 0), (1, 0, −1)}

Hence,
dim(W ) = 2 < dim(V ) = 3

21
Exercise 7. 1. Find the dimension of the space of 2 × 3 matrices.

2. Show that {1, x, x2 , x3 } is a basis of P3 .

3. Can a 4-dimensional space have a basis of 5 vectors?

4. Find the dimension of the subspace spanned by {(1, 2, 3), (2, 4, 6)}.

26
20
al
op
Bh
IT
II
II-
ics
at
m
he
at
M
g
rin
ee
in
ng
:E
HI

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