Aryabhatta 2026

Sinjan Sannigrahi

Study Module: Continuity &

Differentiability
(Part 1: Limits & Continuity)

Target Audience
This material is designed for students aiming for the ISI [Link]/[Link] and CMI
[Link]. (Maths & CS) entrance exams. The focus is on deep conceptual understanding
and the ability to handle proof-style problems.

1 The Rigorous Concept of a Limit

Everything in calculus is built upon the concept of a limit. While you may be familiar
with an intuitive idea, ISI/CMI problems often test the formal definition.

1.1 The (ϵ, δ) Definition of a Limit

This is the bedrock. You must understand what it means.

Definition 1.1. We say limx→a f (x) = L if: For every number ϵ > 0, there exists a
corresponding number δ > 0 such that: if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then |f (x) − L| < ϵ.

• In plain English: You can make f (x) as close to L as you want (within any
tolerance ϵ) by making x sufficiently close to a (within some distance δ).

• Key Idea: ϵ is the “challenge” (how close you want f (x) to be to L). δ is the
“response” (how close x must be to a to achieve it). Your δ will almost always
depend on ϵ.

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 title
Problem: Prove limx→2 (3x − 1) = 5 using the ϵ, δ definition.
Solution:

1. Identify components: Here, f (x) = 3x − 1, a = 2, and L = 5.

2. Set up the goal: We are given an arbitrary ϵ > 0. We need to find a δ > 0
such that if 0 < |x − 2| < δ, then |f (x) − L| < ϵ.

3. Work backwards (Scratch Work): Let’s analyze the ϵ inequality:

|f (x) − L| < ϵ
|(3x − 1) − 5| < ϵ
|3x − 6| < ϵ
3|x − 2| < ϵ
ϵ
|x − 2| <
3

4. Find δ: This scratch work tells us exactly what our δ should be. If we choose
δ = 3ϵ , the logic should work.

5. Formal Proof: Let ϵ > 0 be given. Choose δ = 3ϵ . Now, assume 0 <

|x − 2| < δ. Then |x − 2| < 3ϵ . Multiplying by 3, we get 3|x − 2| < ϵ. This
is |3x − 6| < ϵ, which is |(3x − 1) − 5| < ϵ. This is |f (x) − L| < ϵ. Thus, we
have shown that for any ϵ > 0, there exists a δ (namely δ = 3ϵ ) that satisfies
the definition.

1.2 One-Sided Limits

• Left-Hand Limit (LHL): limx→a− f (x). We only consider x < a.

• Right-Hand Limit (RHL): limx→a+ f (x). We only consider x > a.

Existence of a Limit: A limit limx→a f (x) exists if and only if both one-sided limits
exist and are equal. (LHL = RHL = L)

1.3 Key Theorems for Limits

1. Algebra of Limits: If lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M , then:

• lim(f (x) ± g(x)) = L ± M

• lim(f (x) · g(x)) = L · M
• lim(f (x)/g(x)) = L/M (provided M ̸= 0)

2. The Squeeze Theorem (or Sandwich Theorem):

Theorem 1.2 (Squeeze Theorem). This is a favorite tool in ISI/CMI problems.

If g(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x) for all x near a (except possibly at a), And limx→a g(x) =
limx→a h(x) = L, Then limx→a f (x) = L.

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 • Classic Example 1: Proving limx→0 x2 sin( x1 ) = 0.
– We know −1 ≤ sin( x1 ) ≤ 1 for all x ̸= 0.
– Since x2 ≥ 0, we can multiply: −x2 ≤ x2 sin( x1 ) ≤ x2 .
– We have limx→0 (−x2 ) = 0 and limx→0 (x2 ) = 0.
– By the Squeeze Theorem, the function “squeezed” between them, x2 sin( x1 ),
must also have a limit of 0.
• Classic Example 2: Proving limx→∞ sin(x)
x
= 0.
– We know −1 ≤ sin(x) ≤ 1.
– For x > 0, we can divide by x: −1
x
≤ sin(x)
x
≤ x1 .
– As x → ∞, both limx→∞ −1 x
= 0 and limx→∞ x1 = 0.
sin(x)
– By the Squeeze Theorem, limx→∞ x
= 0.

2 Continuity
Continuity formalizes the intuitive idea of a graph that can be drawn “without lifting
your pen.”

2.1 Definition of Continuity at a Point

A function f is continuous at a point x = a if it meets all three of the following
conditions:

1. f (a) is defined (i.e., a is in the domain of f ).

2. limx→a f (x) exists (i.e., LHL = RHL).

3. limx→a f (x) = f (a).

If any of these fails, the function is discontinuous at x = a.

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 title
Problem: Find the value of k that makes f (x) continuous at x = 2.
( 2
x −4
if x < 2
f (x) = x−22
kx if x ≥ 2

Solution: We must satisfy the 3 conditions.

1. f (a) is defined: a = 2. Using the second part of the rule, f (2) = k(2)2 = 4k.
The function is defined.

2. Limit exists (LHL = RHL):

• LHL: We use the rule for x < 2.

x2 − 4 (x − 2)(x + 2)
lim− = lim− = lim− (x + 2) = 4.
x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2 x→2

• RHL: We use the rule for x ≥ 2.

lim kx2 = k(2)2 = 4k.

x→2+

• For the limit to exist, we must have LHL = RHL, so 4 = 4k.

3. Limit = f (a):

• We need limx→2 f (x) = f (2).

• From (2), the limit (if it exists) is 4k. From (1), f (2) = 4k. This
condition is automatically satisfied if the limit exists.

Conclusion: To make the function continuous, we need LHL = RHL. Therefore,

4 = 4k, which means k = 1.

2.2 Properties of Continuous Functions

• Algebra: If f and g are continuous at x = a, then f + g, f − g, f · g, and f /g
(where g(a) ̸= 0) are also continuous at x = a.

• Composition: This is very important. If g is continuous at a and f is continuous

at g(a), then the composite function f ◦ g (defined by (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))) is
continuous at a.

3 Key Theorems of Continuity (Crucial for Proofs)

These theorems are not just formulas; they are powerful tools for proving the existence
of solutions.

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3.1 The Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)
Theorem 3.1 (Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)). If f is continuous on a closed
interval [a, b], and k is any number between f (a) and f (b) (f (a) ̸= f (b)), then there
exists at least one number c in the open interval (a, b) such that f (c) = k.

Figure 1: Illustration of the Intermediate Value Theorem.

• Application (Root Finding): A common use is to show a root exists. If f

is continuous on [a, b] and f (a) and f (b) have opposite signs (one positive, one
negative), then k = 0 is an intermediate value. Therefore, there must be a c in
(a, b) such that f (c) = 0.

title
(
−1 if x < 0
Consider f (x) = on the interval [−1, 1].
1 if x ≥ 0

• f (−1) = −1 and f (1) = 1.

• Let’s pick an intermediate value k = 0.5.

• The IVT would guarantee a c in (−1, 1) with f (c) = 0.5.

• But f (x) is never 0.5. The IVT fails because f (x) is not continuous at
x = 0.

3.2 The Extreme Value Theorem (EVT)

Theorem 3.2 (Extreme Value Theorem (EVT)). If f is continuous on a closed
interval [a, b], then f attains both a global maximum and a global minimum value on
that interval.

This means there exist numbers c and d in [a, b] such that f (c) ≥ f (x) (global max)
and f (d) ≤ f (x) (global min) for all x in [a, b].

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 title
1. Why “closed interval”?
Consider f (x) = x1 on the open interval (0, 1).

• The function is continuous on this interval.

• However, limx→0+ f (x) = +∞. The function has no global maximum.
• It also has no global minimum (it approaches 1, but never reaches it).
• The EVT fails because the interval is not closed.

2. Why “continuous”?(
x if 0 ≤ x < 1
Consider f (x) = on the closed interval [0, 1].
0 if x = 1

• The function is defined on a closed interval.

• It has a global minimum at x = 0 (and x = 1), where f (x) = 0.
• But it has no global maximum. It approaches 1 as x → 1− , but it
never reaches 1.
• The EVT fails because the function is not continuous at x = 1.

4 Types of Discontinuities
Understanding how a function can fail to be continuous is key.

[Image of removable, jump, and essential discontinuities]

Figure 2: Visualizing the different types of discontinuities.

1. Removable Discontinuity:

• Condition: The limit limx→a f (x) = L exists, but either f (a) ̸= L or f (a)
is undefined.
• Why “removable”? You can “fix” the function by defining (or re-defining)
f (a) = L.
• Example 1: f (x) = sin(x)
x
at x = 0. The limit limx→0 sin(x)
x
= 1, but f (0) is
undefined.

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 (
x2 if x ̸= 1
• Example 2: f (x) = at x = 1. Here, limx→1 f (x) = 1, but
3 if x = 1
f (1) = 3. Since lim ̸= f (1), it’s a removable discontinuity.
2. Jump Discontinuity (Type 1):
• Condition: Both one-sided limits (LHL and RHL) exist and are finite, but
they are not equal.
• Example 1: The greatest integer function, f (x) = ⌊x⌋, at x = 2.
– LHL: limx→2− ⌊x⌋ = 1
– RHL: limx→2+ ⌊x⌋ = 2
|x|
• Example 2: f (x) = x
at x = 0.
−x
– LHL: limx→0− x
= −1
x
– RHL: limx→0+ x
=1
3. Essential Discontinuity (Type 2):
• Condition: At least one of the one-sided limits does not exist (e.g., it goes
to ±∞ or it oscillates).
• Example 1 (Infinite): f (x) = 1
x2
at x = 0.
1
– LHL: limx→0− x2
= +∞
1
– RHL: limx→0+ x2
= +∞
• Example 2 (Oscillatory): f (x) = sin( x1 ) at x = 0. As x → 0, x1 → ∞, and
sin(u) oscillates infinitely often between -1 and 1. Neither the LHL nor the
RHL exists.

5 ISI/CMI Level Problem Set (Part 1)

Instructions: Try to solve these problems by reasoning from the definitions and theo-
rems above.
( 1/x
e −1
1/x if x ̸= 0
1. (Checking Continuity at a Point): Consider the function f (x) = e +1 .
0 if x = 0
Is f (x) continuous at x = 0? Justify your answer. (Hint: Evaluate the LHL and RHL
separately. For the LHL, as x → 0− , x1 → −∞. What does e1/x approach? )
2. (IVT Application - Fixed Point): Let f : [0, 1] → [0, 1] be a continuous function.
Prove that f has a fixed point; that is, prove there exists at least one c ∈ [0, 1] such
that f (c) = c. (Hint: Define a new function g(x) = f (x) − x. What can you say about
g(0) and g(1)? Apply the IVT to g(x).)
(A “Weird” Function - Dirichlet’s): Let f : R → R be defined as f (x) =
3. (
x if x ∈ Q (rational)
. At which point(s) is this function continuous? Prove your
0 if x ∈/ Q (irrational)
claim. (Hint: Check x = 0 using the Squeeze Theorem. For x ̸= 0, show it’s discon-
tinuous by picking sequences of rational and irrational numbers converging to x.)

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4. (Squeeze Theorem): Find the limit limx→∞ x+cos(x)
x+sin(x)
. (Hint: Don’t use L’Hôpital’s
rule. Divide the numerator and denominator by x.)

5. (Functional Equation): Let f : R → R be a function satisfying f (x + y) = f (x) +

f (y) for all x, y ∈ R (This is Cauchy’s Functional Equation). If f is continuous at
x = 0, prove that f (x) = cx for some constant c. (Hint: First, prove f (0) = 0. Use
this to show limx→0 f (x) = 0. Then show f is continuous everywhere. Then, show
f (qx) = qf (x) for any rational q. Finally, use continuity to “fill in the gaps” for
irrational numbers.)

What’s Next in Part 2?

• Differentiability: The formal definition as a limit (the “first principle”).

• Relationship between Continuity & Differentiability.

• Rolle’s Theorem, Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem (MVT), and Cauchy’s

MVT.

• L’Hôpital’s Rule (and its common pitfalls).