Classical Conditioning

(see Psyc 289 for goodnotes)

• Stimulus Generalization and the Case of Little Albert

◦ After conditioning has occurred, organisms often show a tendency to respond not only to the exact CS, but also
to other similar stimuli.
◦ Stimulus generalization occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in
the same way to new stimuli that are similar to
the original stimulus.
◦ The likelihood and amount of generalization to a
new stimulus depends on the similarity between
the new stimulus and the original CS.
◦ The more similar the new stimuli are to the
original CS, the greater the generalization. This
principle can be quantified in graphs called
generalization gradients.
◦ The process of generalization appears to
contribute to the development of panic disorders.
◦ Recent research suggests that panic patients have
a tendency to overgeneralize - to have broader
generalization gradients than control subjects - when exposed to stimuli that trigger anxiety.
◦ John B. Watson did an early study on generalization.
‣ the generalization of conditioned fear in a 11-month old boy, known as "little albert"
‣ started unafraid of a live white rat
‣ paired the presentation of the rat with a loud, startling sound
‣ albert did show fear to the loud noise
‣ after seven pairings the rat was established as a CS eliciting a fear response.
‣ five days later they exposed albert to other stimuli that was also white and furry. Alberts fear response
generalized to a rabbit, a dog, a fur coat, a Santa mask, and Watsons hair.
‣ he was taken from the hospital before they extinguished the conditioned fears, so there is no infromation
on long term effects. sadly he died at six, so we will never know if he had any ill effects from his
participation.

◦ Stimulus Discrimination
‣ Stimulus discrimination is the opposite of
generalization.
‣ Stimulus discrimination occurs when an
organism that has learned a response to a
specific dtimulus does not respond in the same
way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus.
‣ discrimination is adaptive if they have adequate experience with original CS and similar stimuli.
‣ the development usually requires the original CS continues to be paired with the UCS while similar stimulu
not be paired with the UCS.
‣ the less similar new stimuli are to the original CS, the greater the likelihood (and ease) of discrimination
‣ if new stimulus is similar, discrimination will be more difficult to learn.

◦ Higher-Order Conditioning
 ‣ higher-order conditioning, in which a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus.
‣ shows that classical conditioning doesnt need a genuine natural UCS, a well established CS will work
‣ new conditioned responses are built on the foundation of already established conditioned responses.

Review of key points

• Learning is de ned as a relatively durable change in behaviour or knowledge due to experience. Classical
conditioning explains how a neutral stimulus can acquire the capacity to elicit a response originally elicited by
another stimulus. This kind of conditioning was originally described by Ivan Pavlov, who conditioned dogs to
salivate in response to the sound of a tone.
• In classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response
without previous conditioning. The unconditioned response (UCR) is an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned
stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning. The conditioned stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral stimulus
that has acquired the capacity to elicit a conditioned response. The conditioned response (CR) is a learned
reaction to a conditioned stimulus.
• Classically conditioned responses are said to be elicited. Many kinds of everyday responses are regulated through
classical conditioning, including phobias, mild fears, and pleasant emotional responses. Even subtle physiological
responses such as immune system functioning respond to classical conditioning. Sexual arousal can be in uenced
by Pavlovian conditioning, and this process may have adaptive signi cance.
• Stimulus contiguity plays a key role in the acquisition of new conditioned responses. A conditioned response may
be weakened and extinguished entirely when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS. In some cases,
spontaneous recovery occurs, and an extinguished response reappears after a period of non exposure to the CS.
• Conditioning may generalize to additional stimuli that are similar to the original CS.
• The opposite of generalization is discrimination, which involves not responding to stimuli that resemble the
original CS. When an organism learns a discrimination, the generalization gradient narrows around the original CS.
Higher-order conditioning occurs when a CS functions as if it were a UCS.

◦ Recent Directions in Pavlovian Conditioning

‣ recent work examines the neuroscience of associative learning
‣ Ap Dijksterhuis used subliminal conditioning to raise people's self-esteem.
• exposed participants to a number of trials where they were presented simple words. in the
experimental group the word "I" was followed by subliminal presentation of a positive-trait term
such as wise, or healthy, or smart.
• for the control group "I" was followed by neutral works like chair or bike
• the conditioning effect on implicit self-esteem was produced while "bypassing consciousness
altogether"
‣ a variety have implications for understanding and treating psychological disorders.
 Thorndike de ned the law of effect in terms of “satisfying effects,” which turned out to be one of the less satisfying
features of the law of effect. The problem is that “satisfying effects” are dif cult to de ne. What is the difference
between a satisfying effect and one that is not so satisfying? The solution to this problem is to de ne the law of
effect in terms of some change in behaviour, such as performing the response more frequently. This is essentially what
Skinner did in his de nition of reinforcement. Instead of de ning a reinforcer in terms of satisfying effects, Skinner
de ned it in terms of the effect of engaging in the response more often.

Operant Conditioning
• studying is mainly influenced by stimulus events that follow the response - specifically its consequences
• was christened operant conditioning in the 1930s by B.F. Skinner
• learning occurs because responses come to be influenced by the outcomes that follow them

A Skinner box is an apparatus that provides a simpli ed environment in which behaviour can be studied. It
includes a device such as a lever for making and recording a response. The Skinner Box is often confused with the
Air-Crib, the temperature-controlled baby crib that Weiten and McCann also describe in this chapter. Remember
that the Skinner Box is used for studying behaviour, whereas the Air-Crib was designed as an improvement on the
conventional baby crib

• Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences.
◦ distinguished by regulated reflexive, involuntary responses v.s. governed responses.
• classical conditioning sometimes contributes to the regulation of voluntary behaviour, and that operant conditioning
can influence involuntary, visceral responses.

• Thorndike's Law of Effect

◦ another name for operant conditioning is instrumental learning - a term introduced earlier by Edward I.
Thorndike.

Think of reinforcement contingencies as if-then relationships between behaviour and consequences. So, for example,
in this course if you engage in the behaviour of studying hard, you will get a good grade as a consequence. The if-
then relationship between studying and grades is a reinforcement contingency. More complex contingencies also
involve more speci c conditions. If you go to the movies on Tuesdays, the ticket price is reduced. That
reinforcement contingency has the same if-then relationship, but it applies only on Tuesdays. Spend a few moments
to think about the reinforcement contingencies that apply to you—how, for example, you have to behave in a
certain way with some people to obtain reinforcing consequences and another way with other people

◦ setting out to determine if animals could think, he conducted studies on cats.

◦ a hungry car was placed in a small cage or "puzzle box" with food available just outside. The cat could get
food by performing a specific response, like pulling a wire or depressing a lever, recieving food and then being
put right back in the box for another trial. he monitored how many trials it would take. If cats could think,
there would be a drop in the time required to escape when the cat recognized the soulution.
◦ instead Thorndike saw a gradual, uneven decline in the time it took cats to escape
◦ the decline showed the cats were learning, but it suggested it did not depend on thinking and understanding
◦ The law of effect, if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the association
 between the stimulus and the response is strengthened.

The cumulative recorder is sometimes called the “behaviourist's microscope” because it reveals patterns of behaviour
over time that might otherwise not be seen with the naked eye.

• Skinner's Demonstration: It's all a matter of consequences

◦ Skinner invented a Baby Box, or a Baby Tender that he had hoped would modernize child-rearing
‣ it was a flop
◦ tried to help the government in WW2 by training pigeons by means of operant conditioning to be able to use
their beaks fo keep pecking in order
to guide missiles to their target.
‣ the project was cancelled
◦ Skinner demonstrated that organisms
tend to repeat those responses that
are followed by favourible
consequences
◦ Reinforcement occurs when an event
following a response increases an
organisms tendency to make that response. a response is strengthened because it leads to rewarding
consequences
• Terminology and Procedures
◦ Skinner did prototype experimental procedures that used pigeons or rats. A rat or pigeon is placed in an operant
chamber that has come to be known as a Skinner Box
‣ An operant chamber, or Skinner box, is a small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response
that is recorded while the consequences of the response are systematically controlled.
‣ the rats main response was pressing a small lever, the pigeons would peck a small disk.
‣ Because operant responses tend to be voluntary, they are sed to be emitted rather than elicited.
• To emit means to send forth
◦ the skinner box permits control of the reinforcement contingencies that are in effect for the animal
‣ reinforcement contingencies are the circumstances or rules that determine whether responses lead to the
presentation of reinforcers.
‣ Typically the experimenter chooses if positive consequences happen
‣
◦ they key dependent variable in the research is the subjects response rate over time. An animals rate of lever
pressing or disk pecking in the skinner box is monitored by a device known as a cumulative recorder.
‣ The cumulative recorder creates a graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a Skinner box as a
function of time
• a roll of paper that moves at a steady rate underneath a moveable pen. When there is no responding
the pen stays still and draws a straight line. Whenever the designated response occurs, the pen
moves upward a notch.

◦ the results of operant conditioning studies are usually portrayed in graphs

‣ the horizontal axis is used to plot the accumulation of responses
‣ the key consideration is the slope of the line.
‣ a rapid response rate produces a steep slope, a slow response produses a shallow slope.
‣ because it is cumulative the line never goes down

• Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning

 ◦ Acquisition and Shaping
‣ Acquisition in operant
conditioning refers to the initial
stage of learning a new
pattern of responding
‣ the procedures used to
establish a operant response
are different from those used
to create the typical
conditioned response.
‣ Shaping consists of the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response
‣ shaping is necessary when an organism doesn't emit the desired response on its own
• training a puppy to ring a bell when it has to go outside - rewarding it every time it gets closer to
the bell
• does the puppy need the bathroom or does it like making the owner run to the door?
‣ shaping is an important component of skinners research. when a rt is first placed in a skinner box, it may
not press the lever at all. the experimenter begins shaping by releasing food whenever the rat moves
toward the lever
‣ the mechanism of shaping is the key to training animals
• skinner once trained pigeons so they appeared to play ping-pong

Weiten and McCann state that behaviourists object to de ning reinforcement in terms of pleasure
because pleasure is unobservable. However, the main problem with using pleasure to de ne
reinforcement has more to do with its ambiguity and subjectivity than its unobservability. How would
you clearly de ne pleasure? Is what is pleasurable for one person pleasurable for another? These
ambiguities are all avoided by de ning reinforcement in terms of its effect in making the response
more likely to occur. Therefore, behaviourists prefer to de ne reinforcement in terms of response
consequences that make responses occur more frequently. Frequency of behaviour can be measured
and de ned clearly, so there is no need to speculate about what is or is not pleasurable.
Behaviourists often concern themselves
with unobservable behaviours. As
◦ Extinction
discussed in Unit 1, contemporary
‣ extinction refers to the gradual weakening and
behaviourists do not limit themselves to
disappearance of a response tendency because the
what can be publicly observed. Skinner’s
response is no longer being reinforced
book entitled Notebooks, for example, is
‣ a key issue in operant conditioning is how much
full of observations of his own private
resistance to extinction an organism will display when
behaviour, illustrating that behaviourists
reinforcement is halted
often make use of unobservables.
‣ Resistance to extinction occurs when an organism
Skinner's main point about unobservables
continues to make a response after delivery of the
is that studying them poses special
reinforcer has been terminated
problems, which is a bit like saying that it
‣ the greater the resistance to extinction the longer
is more dif cult to nd things in the dark
the responding will continue
than in bright light.
‣ people often want to strengthen a response so it will
be relatively resistant to extinction
Here we reiterate a point made in Chapter
‣ Resistance to extinction depends on multiple factors,
1: Especially if you continue on in
mainly the schedule of reinforcement used during
psychology, read widely to obtain different
acquisition.
points of view in psychology. It is
‣ Renewal effect - if a response is extinguished in a
particularly helpful to read the original
different environment than it was acquired, the
writings of such key psychologists as
extinguished response will reappear if the animal is
Freud and Skinner directly. Reading these
returned to the original environment where acquisition
authors in the original works will help you
took place
develop a nuanced understanding of many
◦ Stimulus Control: Generalization and Discrimination
 ‣ Operant responding is ultimately controlled by its consequences, as organisms learn response-outcome (R-
O) associations. However stimuli that precede a response can slo
exert considerable influence Unconditioned reinforcers are
also called primary reinforcers or
Once a Detroit Tigers baseball fan who lived in Windsor, Ontario, was unlearned reinforcers. Conditioned
watching a game on TV, but then left to mow the lawn. While the reinforcers are also known as
man was mowing, the Tigers scored many runs in the inning he secondary reinforcers or learned
missed. This led him to mow the lawn often during Tigers' games, reinforcers
even when it didn't need mowing. It also caused him to miss the
action, because he was often out mowing the lawn rather than
watching the games. The Tigers scoring a lot of runs that day was an
accidental reinforcer for mowing the lawn: mowing the lawn did not
cause the runs to be scored; the runs coincidentally occurred while
he was mowing the lawn. Note that some sports fan behaviours are
“unaccidentally” reinforced. For example, cheering good plays at a
game makes the home-team players more likely to make great plays.
Much of the home- eld advantage is due to these types of
reinforcement contingencies.

Review of key points

• Operant conditioning involves largely voluntary responses that are governed by their consequences. Thorndike paved
the way for Skinners work by investigating instrumental conditioning and describing the law of effect.
• Skinner pioneered the study of operant conditioning, working mainly with rats and pigeons in Skinner boxes. He
demonstrated that organisms tend to repeat those responses that are followed by reinforcers. Operant responses
are said to be emitted.
• The key dependent variable in operant conditioning is the rate of response over time, which is tracked by a device
called a cumulative recorder. When responding over time is show graphically, steep slopes indicate rapid responding.
• New operant responses can be shaped by gradually reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired
response. Shaping is the key to training animals to perform impressive tricks. In operant conditioning, extinction
occurs when reinforcement for a response is terminated and the rate of that response declines. There are variations
in resistance to extinction.
• Operant responses are regulated by discriminative stimuli that are cues for the likelihood of obtaining reinforcers.
These stimuli are subject to the same processes of generalization and discrimination that occur in classical
conditioning.
• The central process in reinforcement is the strengthening of a response. Primary reinforcers are unlearned; they
are closely tied to the satisfaction of physiological needs. In contrast secondary reinforcers acquire their
reinforcing quality through conditioning.

‣ when a response is followed by a reinforcer in the presence of a stimulus, the stimulus comes to serve as a
"signal". once an organism learns the signal, it tends to respond accordingly
‣ Discriminative Stimuli are cues that influence operant behaviour by indicating the probable consequences
(reinforcement or nonreinforcement) of a response.
‣ human social behaviour is regulated extensively by discriminative stimulu.
‣ Reactions to a discriminative stimulus are governed by the process of stimulus generalization and stimulus
discrimination, just like CS in classical conditioning.
‣ the process of acquision, extinction, generalization and discrimination in operant conditioning parallel the
same procedures in classical conditioning

• Reinforcement: Consequences that Strengthen Responses

◦ behaviourists dont equate reinforcement with reward and the experience of pleaseure because the experience
of pleasure is an unobservable event that takes place within an organism.
◦ Skinner said that reinforcement occurs whenever an outcome strengthens a response, as measure by an increase
in the rate of responding. this definition avoids what the organism is feeling and focuses on observable events.
 ◦ the central process in reinforcement is the strengthening of a response tendency.
◦ Reinforcement is defined after the fact, in terms of its effect on behaviour.
◦ Operant theorists make a distinction between unlearned, or primary, reinforcers as opposed to conditioned or
secondary reinforcers
◦ Primary reinforcers are events that inherently reinforcing because satisfy biological needs.
◦ Secondary or conditioned reinforcers are events that acquire
reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary
reinforcers.
‣ examples include money, good grades, attention, flattery,
praise, and applause. people learn to find stylish clothes,
sports cards, fine jewelry and exotic vacations.
◦ Reinforcement and Superstitious Behaviour
‣ for superstitious behaviours, the reinforcement is most
likely accidental.
‣ Skinner designed an experiment for superstitions
• Pigeons were placed in an experimental cage into
which skinner introduced a reinforcer (food), which
according to skinner had "no reference whatsoever
to the birds behaviour"
• skinner observed that the birds would tend to repeat whatever behaviour they had been engaged in
when the food was presented. for example a bird who turned counterclockwise, a bird who
repeatedly thrust its head into one of the upper corners of the cage.
• Skinners theory that noncontingent reinforcement is the basis for superstitious behaviour held sway
for many years, although some have argued that not all research consistently replicated his findings.
‣ Superstitious behaviour is extremely common and accidental reinforcements may sometimes contribute to
these superstitions.
‣ Contemporary research on superstitious behaviour tends to come from normal cognitive biases and errors
that promote irrational reasoning rather than unpredictable vagaries of operant conditioning.
‣ Athletes are common for exhibiting superstitious behaviour
‣ Contemporary research on superstitious behaviour tends to ascribe it to normal cognitive biases and errors
that promote irrational reasoning rather than to the unpredictable vagaries of operant conditioning
‣ Silly as they seem, superstitions may actually influence peoples outcomes

Many behaviour analysts no longer make use of the distinction

between negative and positive reinforcement. One reason for dropping
• Schedules of the distinction is its ambiguity. For example, Weiten and McCann
suggest that rushing home in winter to get out of the cold is an
Reinforcement example of negative reinforcement. Is this negative reinforcement
◦ In the real world, most responses because the cold is terminated by arriving home, or is it positive
are reinforced only some of the reinforcement because the warmth of home is presented upon arrival?
time. The effective consequence in such situations is not removal of the cold
◦ Intermittent schedules of or presentation of the warmth, but the stimulus change from cold to
reinforcement influence operant warmth. Cold is removed and warmth is presented simultaneously,
behaviour. which makes this type of example dif cult to interpret as either
◦ A schedule of reinforcement negative or positive reinforcement. Note that all reinforcers will involve
determines which occurrences of a a stimulus change, as in this example, and it is the stimulus change
specific response result in the that is the reinforcer. For example, at the end of this course, you will
presentation of a reinforcer. be assigned a course grade and at that point there will be a stimulus
‣ The simplest pattern is change from no assigned grade to an assigned grade. Whether the
continuous reinforcement stimulus change is a reinforcer will depend on the effect it has on
‣ Continuous reinforcement your subsequent behaviour.
occurs when every instance
 of a designated response is reinforced.
‣ Intermittent or partial reinforcement occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the
time.
◦ Studies show that intermittent reinforcement makes a response more resistant to extinction that continuous
reinforcement does.
◦ Organisms continue responding longer after removal of reinforcers when a response has been reinforced only
some of the time.
◦ Four particular types of intermittent schedules
‣ Ratio Schedules require the organism to make designated response a certain number of times to gain each
reinforcer.
• With a fixed-ratio (FR) schedule, the reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced
responses
◦ eg. a rat is reinforced four every tenth lever press
◦ a salesperson gets a bonus for every fourth sale
• With a vairable-ratio (VR) schedule, the reinforcer is given after a variable number of nonreinforced
responses.
◦ eg. a rat is reinforced for every tenth lever press on average. the number of responses required
for reinforcement varies from one time to the next
◦ a slot machine in a casino pays off once every six tries on average. The number of nonwinning
responses between payoffs varies greatly from one time to the next
‣ Interval schedules require a time period to pass between the presentation of reinforcers.
• With a fixed-interval schedule (FI), the reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a
fixed time interval has passed.
◦ eg. a rat is reinforced for the first lever press after a two minute interval has elapsed and
then must wait two minutes before being able to earn the next reinforcement.
◦ a man washing his clothes periodically checks to see if each load is done. The reward (clean
clothes) is avaliable only after a fixed time interval has elapsed, and checking responses during
the interval will no be reinforced.
• With a variable-interval schedule (VI) the reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable
time frame interval has passed.
◦ a rat is reinforced for the first lever press after a one minute interval, but the following
intervals are three minutes, two, four and so on - with an average length of two minutes
◦ a person repeatedly dials a busy phone number (getting through is the reinforcer)
• with a fixed-interval schedules, a pause in responding usually occurs after each reinforcer is
delivered, and then responding gradually increases to a rapid rate at the end of the interval. This
pattern yields a "scalloped" response curve.
◦ Humans react to schedules of reinforcement in much the same way as animals.

• Positive Reinforcement versus Negative Reinforcement

◦ according to skinner, reinforcement can take two forms
‣ Positive reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation
of a rewarding stimulus.
• good grades, tasty meals, paycheques, scholarships, promotions, nice clothes, nifty cars, attention, and
flattery are all positive reinforcers
‣ Negative reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of
an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus.
• negative reinforcement is reinforcement.
• it involves a favourable outcome that strengthened a response tendency. however this strengthening
takes place because a response leads to the removal of an aversive stimulus rather than the arrival
of a pleasant stimulus.
‣ While a rat is in a Skinner box, a moderate electric shock is delivered to the animal through the floor of
the box. When the rat presses the lever the shock is turned off for a period of time. Thus lever pressing
leads to removal of an aversive stimulus.
Review of Key Points
• Schedules of reinforcement in uence patterns of operant responding. Continuous reinforcement occurs when every
designated response is reinforced. Intermittent schedules of reinforcement include xed-ratio, variable-ratio,
xed-interval, variable-interval schedules.
• Intermittent schedules produce greater resistance to extinction than similar continuous schedules. Ratio schedules
tend to yield higher rates of response than interval schedules. Shorter intervals and higher ratios are associated
with faster responding.
• Responses can be strengthened either through the presentation of positive reinforcers or through the removal of
negative reinforcers. Negative reinforcement regulates escape and avoidance learning. The two-process theory
provides the best explanation of avoidance behaviour and many shed light on why phobias are so dif cult to
eliminate.
• Punishment involves unfavourable consequences that lead to a decline in response strength. Positive punishment
involves the application of aversive consequences, and negative punishment is the removal of a reward. Problems
associated with the application of negative punishment include emotional side effects and increased aggressive
behaviour. To be effective, punishment of children should be swift, consistent, explained, nonphysical, and just
severe enough to have an impact.

‣ You rush home in the winter to get out of the cold. You clean the house to get rid of the mess. You give
into your child to stop the whining.

• Negative Reinforcement and Avoidance Behaviour

◦ Consistent reliance on avoidance is not a very effective coping strategy.
◦ Escape Learning
‣ The roots of avoidance lie in escape learning.
‣ In escape learning, an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation.
‣ often studied in an shuttle box.
• a shuttle box has two compartments connected by a doorway which can be opened and closed by the
experimenter.
‣ Escape learning doesn't necessarily entail leaving the scene of the adverse stimulation. Any behaviour that
decreases or ends adverse stimulation represents escape learning.
◦ Avoidance Learning
‣ Escape learning often leads to avoidance learning.
‣ In avoidance learning an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from
occurring.
‣ The experimenter simply gives the animal a signal that a shock is forthcoming. The typical signal is a light
that goes on a few seconds prior to a shock. At first the rat runs only when shocked (escape learning).
Gradually it learns to run to the safe compartment as soon as the light comes on, demonstrating avoidance
learning.
‣ in avoidance learning the warning light that goes on Evolution is an ongoing process. Modern
before the shock becomes a CS (through classical threats to humans tend not to be snakes
conditioning). However the response of fleeing is and spiders, but tend to be human
operant conditioning. inventions such as motor vehicles, which kill
‣ Its hard to get rid of phobias for two reasons 1.2 million people annually according to the
• responses that allow you to avoid a phobic World Health Organization. If humans
stimulus earns negative reinforcement each continue to use motor vehicles for millions
time they are made - so avoidance behaviour of years, will they develop preparedness for
is strengthened and continues a conditioned aversion to motor vehicles?
• these avoidance responses prevent any
opportunity to extinguish the phobic condition
because youre never exposed to the
conditioned stimulus.
• Punishment: Consequences That Weaken Responses
◦ In skinners model of operant behaviour, consequences that decrease an organisms tendency to make a particular
response is called punishment.
◦ Punishment occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response.
◦ In a skinner box its simple, when a rat presses the lever or a pigeon pecks the disk they receive a brief shock.
This usually leads to a rapid decline in the animals response rate.
◦ Punishment usually involves presentation of an aversive stimulus. It may also be the removal of a rewarding
stimulus.
◦ Negative reinforcement involves the REMOVAL of an aversive stimulus, thereby strengthening its response.
Punishment involves the PRESENTATION of a aversive stimulus, thereby weakening its response.
◦ In the operant model, punishment occurs any time that undesirable consequences weaken a response tendency.
◦ Side effects of Physical Punishment
‣ 3/4 of parents report they sometimes spank their children
‣ the supreme court of canada ruled in a
vote of six to three that "reasonable Tolman's work is often held up as showing that learning
corrective force" can be used only can occur without reinforcement, but this interpretation
between the ages of 2 and 12. It is not demands that each instance of exploratory behaviour be
acceptable to use objects in hitting a reinforced. However, both rats and people develop a class
child and the child cannot be hit in the of exploratory behaviours that are intermittently
head reinforced. We often explore new environments, and our
‣ Elizabeth Gershoff concluded that behaviour of remembering and recalling what we explored
physical punishment is associated with will sometimes (intermittently) be reinforced at a later
poor-quality parent-child relationships, time as we nd ourselves able to successfully navigate
elevated aggression, delinquency and again. So what we wind up with is a reinforced class of
behavioural problems in youngsters. these exploratory behaviours. While speci c instances of the
effects can carry over into adulthood. class may go unreinforced, this disguises the fact that the
Critics have raised doubts of her findings class itself is maintained by intermittent reinforcement. As
as she failed to differentiate between such, latent learning does not necessarily show that
hard aggressive and frequent vs. mild and learning occurs without reinforcement.
infrequent spankings
◦ How to make punishment effective while reducing its side effects
‣ Apply punishment swiftly. Delay tends to undermine impact-fulness
‣ Use punishment just severe enough to be effective.
‣ Make punishment consistent. if you want to eliminate a response you should punish it every time it occurs.
‣ Explain the punishment. The more someone understands the more effective the punishment will be.
‣ Use non corporal punishments, such as withdrawal of privileges

Changing Directions in the Study of Conditioning

• There has been two major changes in thinking about conditioning. First is the recent recognition that an organisms
biological heritage can limit or channel conditioning. Second is the increased appreciation of the role of cognitive
processes in conditioning.
• Recognizing Biological Constraints of Conditioning
◦ Theorists assumed the laws of conditioning applied to a wide range of species. They also assumed associations
could be made between any stimulus a organism could register and any response it could make.
◦ Instinctive Drift: The case of the Miserly Raccoons
‣ Instinctive drift occurs when an animals innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning processes.
‣ first described by the Brelands - operant psychologists that went into business to train animals
commercially
 In this section, Weiten and McCann conclude that if a you listen to a song while studying and then later
do well on the exam, then listening to the song is unlikely to be strengthened because you would come to
a logical conclusion that there was no relationship between the song and doing well on the exam. However,
Weiten and McCann’s analysis in this section is at odds with several examples they provided at the outset
of the chapter. For example, Wayne Gretzky played hockey with his jersey tucked into his hockey pants on
one side. Why did Gretzky’s cognitive processes not override the effects of reinforcement on his goal
scoring and playmaking?

It is true that sometimes irrelevant features of our behaviour are reinforced along with the features
that actually produced reinforcement. So Gretzky’s dressing habits, a feature of his behaviour irrelevant to
goal scoring, were reinforced along with the skills that allowed him to score goals. It is also true that
sometimes a logical process occurs in which we identify the features of our behaviour that are
responsible for our successes. Note, however, that this logical process in which we identify what we do
that is successful is itself a behaviour established through discrimination, reinforcement, and conditioning
processes, not a process unrelated to these more basic processes.

The Weiten and McCann example of listening to the song is unlikely to be reinforced by doing well on the
exam due to the delay between the song and receiving the exam mark (or concluding that you did well on
the exam). On the other hand, holding a pen in a particular way, tapping one’s foot, and looking toward
the ceiling are behaviours that are probably reinforced often because they precede recall of the correct
answer on an exam. You may notice many of these behaviours the next time you are taking an exam,
Review ofeither
Key in yourself or in other students.
Points
• Recent decades have brought profound changes in our understanding of conditioning. Instinctive drift occurs when
an animals innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning. Conditioned taste aversions can be readily
acquired even when there is a lengthy delay between the CS and the UCS. Seligman's concept of preparedness may
explain why certain phobias are far more common than others.
• The ndings on instinctive drift, conditioned taste aversion and preparedness have led to the recognition that there
are species-speci c biological constraints on conditioning. Some evolutionary psychologists argue that learning
processes very immensely across species because different species have gone to grapple with very different
adaptive problems.
• Tolman emphasized the role of cognition in learning, and he added the concepts latent learning and cognitive maps to
the study of learning.
• Rescorlas work on signal relations showed that the predictive value of a CS is an in uential factor governing
classical conditioning. When a response is followed by a desirable outcome, the response is more likely to be
strengthened if it appears that the response caused the outcome. Studies of signal relations in classical conditioning
and response-outcome relations in operant conditioning suggest that cognitive processes play a larger role in
conditioning that originally believed.

• their raccoons wouldn't deposit coins like they had trained, they would rub them together like they
do for food (food washing)
◦ Conditioned Taste Aversion: the "sauce Béarnaise Syndrome"
‣ eating food and then getting sick = getting sick when eating that food
• food poisoning, alcohol, nausea
‣ result of classical conditioning: neutral stimulus (the sauce) paired with an unconditioned stimulus (the flu)
which caused an unconditioned response (nausea)
‣ this aversion broke certain principles of conditioning.
• the delay of 6 hours should have prevented conditioning from happening
◦ in the lab 30 seconds makes it more difficult
• why the sauce? the plates, drinks should have also gained conditioning responses
• solved by John Garcea
◦ studies on conditioned taste aversion: used rats & radiation to cause nausea
 when taste was followed with nausea, an aversion formed
◦
when tase was followed with other noxious stimuli (like shock) they didn't develop taste aversion
◦
visual and auditory stimuli also failed to create a taste aversion
◦
it was almost impossible to create certain associations, whereas taste-nausea associations were
◦
almost impossible to prevent.
◦ Preparedness and Phobias

Weiten and McCann imply that Skinner rejects the notion that learning can occur without the learned behaviour
occurring. For Skinner, learning includes instances in which, for example, a stimulus becomes an effective
discriminative stimulus for a behaviour even though that behaviour has not yet been performed. For Skinner,
learning is not a process of acquiring behaviours but a process in which relationships are established between
stimuli, behaviours, and consequences. For example, suppose you see someone perform a simple card trick and you
are then able to imitate it. Once you see the trick, particular discriminative relationships have been set up
between the cards and your behaviour. You have learned the trick when those relationships have been established,
even though you have not yet performed the trick.

‣ Preparedness involves a species specific predisposition to be conditioned in certain ways and not others.
‣ even with evolution we still have a tendency to develop phobias to things that would be threatening to our
ancestors, and are less likely to develop ones that aren't a real "threat"
‣ studies showed that when paired with shock, phobic stimuli (snakes, spiders) produced stronger fear
responses than neutral stimuli or modern fear-relevant stimuli (guns, knives)
‣ Arne Ohman and Susan Mineka - key elements for evolved module fear learning

One of the most shocking practices in Western culture is the depiction of violence on television and in movies. As
Weiten and McCann state, it is known that viewing violent acts increases the likelihood that those acts will be
imitated. Much of the violence in Western society can be logically attributed to the violence portrayed in the media.
However, Western culture places a high value on freedom, including the freedom to present acts of violence in
entertainment media despite the data showing that society is worse off as a result.

If a target behaviour increases in frequency from watching another human being reinforced for engaging in that same
behaviour, the target behaviour has been vicariously reinforced. If a target behaviour decreases in frequency from
watching another being punished for engaging in that same behaviour, the target behaviour has been vicariously
punished.
 • preferentially activated by stimuli related to survival threats in evolutionary history
• automatically activated by these stimuli
• relatively resistant to conscious efforts to suppress the fears
• dependent on neutral circuitry running through the amygdala
◦ Evolutionary Perspectives on Learning
‣ Basic mechanisms of learning are similar across species, but different organisms confront different

Review of Key Points

• In observational learning, an organism is conditioned vicariously by watching a models conditioning. Both classical
and operant occur through observational learning, which depends on the process of attention, retention
reproduction and motivation.
• According to Bandura, reinforcement in uences which of several already acquired responses one will perform more
than it in uences the acquisition of new responses
• Observational learning can account for the in uence of mass media (TV) on behaviour. The principles of
observational learning have also been used to explain why physical punishment increases aggressive behaviour.
• Two of our key themes: one involves the interaction of heredity and environment in learning. The other involves the
way progress in psychology affects society at large.

adaptive problems to survive and reproduce, so learning has evolved along

somewhat different paths.

• Recognizing Cognitive Processes in Conditioning

◦ Old thinking (Pavlov, Skinner) viewed conditioning as a mechanical process.
◦ Edward C. Tolman was ahead of his time (30-40's) and suggested cognitive
processes play a role in conditioning
◦ recent research finds have shifted the view to more cognitive explanations of
cognitive conditioning.
◦ Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps
‣ In one landmark study, rats learned to run a complicated maze
• group A got a reward every-time they ran the maze. performance
gradually improved
• group B did not get any food reward. performance showed only modest
improvement
• group C did not get a reward for the first 10 trials, and got a reward
from the 11th trial onward. Showed little improvement in the first 10
trials, but a sharp improvement from 11 onward, performance was even
a little better than group A
‣ concluded that the rats in group C had been learning all along, just didn't have motivation to demonstrate
their learning
‣ latent learning is learning that is not apparent from behaviour when it first occurs
‣ learning can take place in the absence of reinforcement
‣ the rats who displayed latent learning formed a cognitive map of the maze (when it cognitive processes
weren't considered.
◦ Signal Relations
‣ Robert Rescorla asserts that environmental stimuli serve as signals and that some stimuli are better, or
more dependable signals than others.
‣ Signal relations in classical conditioning - CS-UCS relations that influence whether a CS is a good signal. A
"good" signal is one that allows accurate prediction of the UCS
‣ Rescorla manipulates the predictive value of a conditioned stimulus
‣ Studies showed that even with the same number of trials, some CS create stronger bonds than others
◦ Response-Outcome Relations and Reinforcement
‣ Reinforcement is not automatic when favourable consequences follow a response.
 ‣ People reason out the relationships between responses and the outcomes
‣ when you have a positive outcome, the response is more likely to be strengthened if the person thinks the
response caused the outcome.
‣ pigeons can recognize some of these relationships

Observational Learning
• Observational learning occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are
called models.
• Investigated extensively by Albert Bandura
◦ he does not see observational learning as entirely separate from classical and operant conditioning. he thinks it
extends the reach of both.
◦ observational conditioning involves being conditioned indirectly by virtue of observing another's conditioning.
• Basic Processes
◦ four key processes that are essential to observational learning.
‣ Attention: to learn through observation, you must pay attention to another persons behaviour and its
consequences.
‣ Retention: you may not have occasion to use an observed response for weeks, months, or even years.
Hence, you must store in your memory a mental representation of what you have witnessed.
‣ Reproduction: enacting a modelled response depends on your ability to reproduce the response by
converting your stored mental images into overt behaviour. This may not be easy for some responses.
‣ Motivation: Finally, you are unlikely to reproduce an observed response unless you are motivated to do so.
Your motivation depends on whether you encounter a situation in which you believe that the response is
likely to pay off for you.
• Acquisition versus Performance
◦ Bandura distinguishes between the acquisition of a learned response and the performance of the response
◦ Reinforcement affects which responses are actually performed than which responses are acquired.
• Observational Learning and the Media Violence Controversy
◦ sitting in front of the TV leads to obesity
◦ Bandura was an early advocate for applying learning principles to explain aggression in children.
◦ Banduras "Bobo doll" experiment
‣ children would imitate aggressive behaviour to a bobo doll from an adult model.
‣ children who saw the model rewarded were more likely to be aggressive than those who saw the model
punished
‣ all children acted aggresive if they were offered a reward before imitating the models bahaviour.

Review of Key Points

• In behaviour modi cation, the principles of learning are used to change behaviour directly. Behaviour modi cation
techniques can be used to increase ones self-control. The rst step involves specifying the target behaviour to be
increased or decreased.
• The second step involves gathering baseline data about the initial rate of the target response and identifying any
typical antecedents and consequences associated with the behaviour
• The third step is to design a program. If you are trying to increase strength of a response, you'll depend on
positive reinforcement. The reinforcement contingencies should spell out exactly what you have to do to earn your
reinforcer. A number of strategies can be used to decrease the strength of a response, including reinforcement,
control of antecedents and punishment.
• The fourth step involves executing and evaluating your program. Self-modi cation programs often require some
ne-tuning. The nal step is to determine how and when you will phase out your program.

Featured Study: The long-term effects of watching violence on TV

• does childhood violent programs lead to adult aggression 15 years later
• from a previous study
• Method
◦ Subjects
‣ of the original 1977 sample, 329/557 participants agreed to participate in this study 15 years later.
◦ Procedure
‣ were assessed as children for level of aggressiveness, TV violence viewing habits, tendency to identify with
aggressive characters, and their judgments on how real the TV violence was.
‣ assessed by self report
‣ answered questions regarding frequency of engaging in specific acts of aggression (Verbal, indirect, mild
physical, severe)
‣ researchers looked for criminal records too
◦ Results
‣ an aggression score was calculated for each person
‣ Adult levels of aggression were significantly correlated with childhood TV violence viewing, the childrens
perceptions that TV violence reflects real life, and the tendency for children to identify with same-sex
aggressive characters.
◦ Discussion
‣ the level of TV violence did not only impact a child's aggression at the time, but also 15 years later. This
is especially true for boys.
◦ Comment
‣ shows that the effects did not diminish over time
‣ longitudinal design - participants are tested repeatedly over a period of time to examine developmenal
trends.
• also applies to video games - desensitize acts of aggression

• Observational Learning and the Brain: Mirror Neurons

◦ Mirror neurons are neurons that are activated by performing an action or by seeing another monkey or person
perform the same acton
◦ Giacomo Rizzollati studied the activation of these neurons in macaque monkeys
◦ found in both the frontal lobe and the parietal lobe

Putting it in Perspective: Themes 3 and 6

• how nature and nurture interactively govern behaviour
• looking at psychology in its sociohistorical context you can see how progress spills over to affect trends and values in
society

Personal Application: Achieving self-control through

behaviour modification
• Behaviour modification is a systematic approach to changing behaviour through the application of the principles of
conditioning.
• Specifying your target behaviour
◦ can only be applied to a clearly defined, overt response - not a trait
• Gathering baseline data
◦ keep track of how often the target response occurs in a specific time interval
◦ it is crucial to gather accurate data
◦ Antecedents are events that typically precede the target response
◦ monitor the consequences of your target behaviour
 ‣ find the reinforcers
• Designing your program
◦ your program will be designed to either increase or decrease the frequency
‣ Increasing response strength
• focus on positive reinforcement
• select a reinforcer
◦ you can use reinforcers you are already getting
◦ must work for you
• arranging the contingencies
◦ describe the exact behavioural goals
◦ challenging and realistic
◦ not too much reinforcement
◦ A token economy is a system for doing out symbolic reinforcers that are exchanged later for a
variety of genuine reinforcers
‣ decreasing response strength
• reinforcement
◦ reinforcers can be used in an indirect way. it all depends on the wording of your goal
• control of antecedents
◦ avoid exposure to things that may lead you to the undesirable behaviour
• punishment
◦ overused and difficult - people have a hard time punishing themselves
◦ do not use punishment alone
◦ use a relatively mild punishment
• executing and evaluating your program
◦ success is based on not cheating
◦ make a behavioural contract - a written agreement outlining a promise to adhere to the contingencies of a
behaviour modification program.
◦ have someone other then you give punishments
• ending your program
◦ phase it out
◦ have a clear end Comment: One of the most shocking practices in Western culture is the depiction of violence

Key Ideas

• Classical Conditioning
◦ Classical conditioning explains how a neutral stimulus can acquire the capacity to elict a response originally
evoked by another stimulus. This kind of conditioning was originally described by Ivan Pavlov
◦ Many kinds of everyday responses are regulated through classical conditioning, including phobias, fears, and
pleasant emotional responses. even physiological responses, such as immune and sexual functioning, respond to
classical conditioning.
◦ A conditioned response may be weakened and extinguished entirely when the CS is no longer paired with the
UCS. In some cases, spontaneous recovery occurs, and an extinguished response reappears after a period of
nonexposure to the CS.
◦ Conditioning may generalize to additional stimuli that are similar to the original CS. The opposite of
generalization is discrimination, which involves not responding to stimuli that resemble the original CS. Higher-
 order conditioning occurs when a CS functions as if it were a UCS to establish new conditioning.
• Operant Conditioning
◦ Operant conditioning involves largely voluntary responses that are governed by their consequences. Following the
lead of E.L Thorndike, B.F. Skinner investigated this form of conditioning, working mainly with rats and pigeons in
Skinner Boxes
◦ The key dependent variable in operant conditioning is the rate of response over time. When this responding is
shown graphically, steep slopes indicate rapid responding. New operant responses can be shaped gradually
reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired response. In operant conditioning, extinction occurs
when reinforcement for a response is terminated and the rate of that response declines.
◦ Operant responses are regulated by discriminative stimuli that are cues for the likelihood of obtaining
reinforcers. These stimuli are subject to the same processes of generalization and discrimination that occur in
classical conditioning.
◦ Delayed reinforcement slows the process of conditioning . Primary reinforcers are unlearned; secondary
reinforcers acquire their reinforcing quality through conditioning.
◦ Intermittent schedules of reinforcement produce greater resistance to extinction than similar continuous
schedules. Ratio schedules tend to yield higher rates of response that interval schedules. Shorter intervals and
higher ratios are associated with faster responding.
◦ Responses can be strengthened through wither the presentation of positive reinforcers or the removal of
negative reinforcers. Negative reinforcement regulates escape and avoidance learning. The two-process theory
provides the best explanation of avoidance behaviour and may shed light on why phobias are so difficult to
eliminate.
◦ Positive and negative punishments involve consequences that lead to a decline in response strength. Some of the
problems associated with punishment as a disciplinary procedure are emotional side effects and increased
aggressive behaviour.
• Changing Directions in the Study of Conditioning
◦ The findings on instinctive drift, conditioned tase aversion, and preparedness have led to the recognition that
there are species-specific biological constraints on conditioning. Some evolutionary psychologists argue that
learning processes very considerably across species.
◦ Studies of signal relations in classical conditioning and response-outcome relations in operant conditioning
suggest that cognitive processes play a larger role in conditioning than originally believed.
• Observational learning
◦ In observational learning, an organism is conditioned by watching a model's conditioning. Both classical and
operant conditioning can occur through observational learning., which depends on the process of attention,
retention, reproduction and motivation.
◦ Observational learning can account for the influence of mass media (such as TV) on behaviour. The principles of
observational learning have also been used to explain why physical punishment increases aggressive behaviour.
• Putting it in Perspective: Themes 3 and 6
◦ Two key themes: one involves the interaction of heredity and environment in learning. The other involves the
interaction of heredity and environment in learning. The other involves the way progress in psychology affects
society at large.
• Personal Application - Achieving Self-Control through Behaviour Modification
◦ The first stap in self-modification is specifying the target behaviour to be increased or decreased. The second
step is gathering baseline data.
◦ The third step is to design a program, using procedures such as reinforcement, control of antecedents, and
punishment. The fourth step involves executing and evaluation your program. The final step is to determine how
and when you will phase out your program.
• Critical Thinking Application - Manipulating Emotions: Pavlov and Persuasion
◦ Advertisers routinely pair their products with stimuli that seem likely to elicit positive emotions or other
specidic felings. The practice of taking customers out to dinner or other major events also takes advantage of
Pavlovian conditioning. Politicians also work to pair themselves with positive events. The best defence against
these tactics is to become more aware of efforts to manipulate your emotions.