Y

INTRODUCTION

Why St,rdy Petrology?

side from the atmosphere and hydrosphere, rocks cambrian (Proterozoic) and after? Can we use these
are the stuff of which the Earth is made. Petrol- rocks to infer confidently how much oxygen was
ogy, the study of rocks (from the Greek petra, present in the early atmosphere?
"rock, " and lo g o s, "discourse or er<planation"), therefore
occupies a central position among the earth sciences,
, The relative abundance of different sedimentar;r ma-
building upon mineralogy and with strong connections terials forming at present is drastically different from
to structural geology and tectonics, sedimentology, geo- rock abundances found in the geologic record.
chemistry and geophysics. The observation and study of a. Dolomite is three times as abundant as limestone
the rocks of the crust and mantle is the source of infor- in Precambrian rocks. At present, formation of
mation that constrains most of our ideas and models dolomite is rare, restricted to unusual environ-
about the history of Earth. Knowledge about igneous, ments such as the Persian Gulf or the Netherlands
sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks, their origins, their Antilles.
ages, and their distribution, is potentially capable of con-
tributing to the solution of a wide variety of problems b. The Middle Precambrian stratigraphic column
(about 2.5 billion years old) contains about 15 per-
that run the gamut of geological interests. Some of these
problems include the following: cent fine-grained silica in the form of chert, much
of which appears to have been directly precipi-
1. Most evolutionary biologists believe that living mat- tated from seawater. At present, the rate of chert
ter evolved from nonliving matter more than 3.8 bil- formation is trivial outside the deep ocean basins,
lion years ago in a reducing atmosphere, because it and most of this is formed from the siliceous shells
is thought that primitive cells would have been de- of microorganisms.
fenseless against oxidation. This suggestion implies
that there was little or no oxygen in the atmosphere c. Evaporites axe extremely rare in the Precambrian
of the early Earth, a theory supported by the ab- compared to more recent times. Why? Has the
sence of free oxygen increasing in the atmospheres
composition of seawater changed during the last
2.5 billion years? Has the proportion of rock ex-
of other planets in our solar system. However, early
posed to weathering, and thus the composition of
Precambrian (Archean) iron ores contain oxidized
iron in the form of magnetite, a mineral that contains material supplied to the oceans by streams and
both Fez+ and Fe3+, afartthat might be interpreted rivers, changed since the Precambrian?
to indicate that the early atmosphere contained sub- 3. Igneous rocks have a wide variety of textures and
stantial oxygen. Similarly, apparent Precambrian compositions-in particular, a continuous range in
weathering zones or soils ("paleosols") have a red silica content from less than 45 to about 75 percent.
appearance caused by strongly oxidized (hematitic) Yet by far the greatest volume of igneous rocks is es-
iron. Did both the iron ores and the soils contain sentially bimodal, and consists of either coarse-
magnetite or hematite from the beginning, or was grained granitoid rocks (silica content ofabout 65 to
original, more reduced iron gradually oxidized as free 75 percent) or fine-grained basaltic rocks (silica con-
oxygen increased in the atmosphere in the later Pre- tent of45 to 52 percent). What does this tell us about
r-
ffi Introduction

the formation and evolution of magmas and about Igneous rock: Rock that solidified from a molten or
tectonics and crust-forming processes? partly molten material, that is, from a magma.
4. Metamorphic rocks of identical chemical composi- Sedimentary rock: Rock resulting from the consol-
tion in different tectonic settings and at different idation of loose sediment that has accumulated in
crustal depths can consist of widely differing mineral layers. Examples include clastic rock consisting of
assemblages. HoW exactly, does this fact relate to mechanically formed fragments of older rock trans-
metamorphic reactions and to different rates of tem- ported from their source and deposited in water or
peratu-re and pressure change during orogeny? How from air or ice; a chemical rock formed by precipita-
can we use the characteristics of metamorphic rocks tion from solution; an organic rock consisting of the
to reconstruct the geologic history and tectonic asso- remains or secretions of plants and animals.
ciations of volcanic and sedimentary rocks that are
Metamorphic rock: Any rock derived from preex-
assembled into orogenic belts? In particular, how do
isting rocks by mineralogical, chemical, and struc-
the newly discovered ultra-high pressure (UHP) and
tural changes, essentially in the solid state, in re-
ultra-high temperature ([IHT) metamorphic terranes
sponse to marked changes in temperature, pressure,
such as the Dabie-Shan in China, the coastal Norwe-
shearing stress, and chemical environment at depth
gian eclogite belt, the Kokchetav Massif in Kazakhstan
in the Earth's crust, that is, below the zones of weath-
(all UHP), and the granulite-facies terranes of cra-
ering and cementation.
tons (UHT) reveal details of geodynamic processes?
5. Some sandstones contain only quartz; others contain As do all classification schemes, this fundamental
30 percent feldspar; still others contain 90 percent classification scheme contains a flaw. Nature is not com-
volcanic rock fragments. Can these data be used to partmentalized, it is a continuum; it is not segregated
infer the types and proportions of rocks exposed on into discrete parts with obvious boundaries for our con-
Earth's surface at different times and in different ge- venience. Hence, borderline or transitional rocks exist
ographic locations? Can similar sedimentary rock and end up in one or another ofthe categories because
types be identified as the precursors for metamor- of historical precedence or the bias or whim of the clas-
phic rocks in orogenic belts? Is the precise mineral sifier. For example, volcanic tuffs are rocks that origi-
composition of sandstones and other clastic rocks nate in volcanoes. After explosive ejection as rock, min-
related to tectonic processes and crustal evolution, eral, or glass fragments into the atmosphere, they settle
and if so, how? Has it changed systematically over on land surfaces or in water. They may even be trans-
geologic time? ported some distance by water or wind. If they settle
into layers (as is common), should they be classified as
6. Geologic studies of the lunar and Martian surfaces sedimentary or igneous? In most classification schemes,
and satellite studies of the Martian and Venusian sur- these rocks are classffied as igneous, although they are
faces have given us a preliminary understanding of commonly referred to as volcanigenic sediments.
the early stages ofplartetary evolution in bodies that Another example is serpentinite, a rock mainly com-
have been geologically inactive for hundreds of mil- posed of minerals of the serpentine group. Many serpen-
lions to billions of years. Can we use our developing tinites are thought to originate as ultramafic magmatic
understanding of rocks on other planetary bodies to rocks in small, shallow magma chambers near a mid-
interpret the much sparser information on the early ocean ridge. During cooling, they undergo hydration from
Earth preserved in rare, very old rocks that have sur- surrounding water-rich sediments that transforms most
vived later geologic activity and recycling? or all of the olivine or pyroxene crystals into serpentine.
Should this rock be classified as igneous or metamor-
phic? Most petrologists would classify it as metamorphic.

$ffiffifr. Three Mcjor Bock Types A third example is migmatite, an outcrop-scale mix-
ture of light and dark rocks thought to represent the on-
Rocks are naturally occurring, mechanically coherent set of melting in the crust at the highest grades of meta-
aggregates of minerals or mineraloids (coal, glass, opal), morphism. Migmatite occupies a gray zone at the
some with interstitial fluids, and most consisting of sev- boundary between the conditions of metamorphism and
eral different minerals. Rocks are traditionally divided magmatic conditions. In fact, there is substantial overlap
into three major groups: igneous, sedimentary, and meta- behnreen these regions. Thus, migmatite can be -consid-
morphic. ln most outcrops and hand specimens it is not ered partly metamorphic and partly igneous.
difficult to apply these categories to rock identification, In fact, the necessity of classiffig rocks commonly
and they serve the useful purpose of sorting rocks on the forces petrologists into making critical observations and
basis of observable characteristics that depend on the interpretations that aid in assessing the process of for-
conditions of initial formation. The American Geological mation of rocks. In this book we discuss many of these
Institute's Glossary of Geology defines each group as observations and interpretations. Additional subdivisions
follows: in each of the three major categories are introduced and
 --
TABLE I-t Generol chqrocteristics of igneous, sedimentory, and metamorphlc rocks
IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC

t-
Outcrop characteristics and structures
n
)f
L. Volcanoes and related lava l. Stratiflcation and sorting 1. Distorted pebbles, fossils, or
flows 2. Structures such as ripple marks, crystals
i-
rr
2. Cross-cutting relations to cross-bedding, or mud cracks 2. Paraltrelism of planar or
surrounding rocks, as in 3. Often widespread and inter- elongate grains common over
[-
dikes, veins, stocks, and bedded with lonown sediments large areas
e
batholiths 8. Located a(jacent to lmown
4. fire shape of the body may be
3. Thermal effects on adiacent characteristic of a sedimeritary igneous rocks, occasionally as
rocks, such as form, such as a delta, bar, river a zoned aureole
recrystallization, color drainage system, and so on 4. Tlpically located in
changes, reaction zones
5. The rocks may be Precantbrian or orogenic
4. Chilled (finer-grained) unconsolidated or not terrAnes
h
borders against adjacent B. Roc-k eleavage related to
I-
rocks regironal structures
5. Lack of fossils and 6. Frogrcrssive change in
stratification (except for
II 4ineralory orrer a wide area
pyroclastic deposits)
I- 7. Some are rnassive hard rocks
d 6. Generally structureless cornposed of interlocking
I- rocks composed of grains
it interlocking grains
e 7. Tlpically located in
i Precambrian or orogenic
i- tenanes
I- 8. Characteristic shapes and
e sizes, as in laccoliths,
,- lopoliths, sills, stocks,
e batholiths, and lava flows.
s
i) Textures
e
vesicular,
Porphyritic, glassy, Fragmental, fossiliferous, oolitic, Brecciated, granulated,
F amygdaloidal, graphic, pisolitic, stratified, interlocking crystalloblastic, or hornfelsic
F
pyroclastic, or interlocking aggregate
C
aggregate l

t-
I
Characteristic minerals
it Amphibole Abundant quartz, carbonates Amphibole
Feldspar abundant (especially calcite and dolomite), Andalusite
Leucite or clays
Cordi,erltr!
! Micas Epidote
Nepheline Chert (microcrystalline quartz)
I- Feldspap
I- Olivine Gypsum
Garriet
e
Pyroxene Halite
Glaucophane
d
Quartz Graphite
p
Glass Kyanite
I-
Sillirnanite
v Staurolite
d
Thernolite-actinolite
t-
Wollastonite
e
.S
Micas
d Quartz

xlx
l$!ffigi*s!i-
Introduction
llr$}ffiffiill

discussed. Subdivision of rocks into the three general of geochemistry examines rock-forming processes over
categories can be to some extent a result of actual ob- the entire range of crustal and upper-mantle tempera-
servation of processes of formation, parbicularly for sed- tures and pressures, from 20"C and 1 atm pressure
imentary and volcanic rocks. For intrusive igneous rocks (105 Pa) at the surface all the wav to well over 1000'C
and metamorphic rocks, it is obviously impossible to and many thousands of atm (> 1.0 GPa) in the mantle,
obserye their formation directly, and therefore indirect and thus it provides a key scientific linkage of all three
and inferential methods are required. Commonly these rock types.
methods involve experimental laboratory calibration of
pressures, temperatures, and processes, or geochemical
modeling.
Table I-1 (on the previous page) is designed to facil-
itate the subdivision of rocks into one or another of the
Iative Surface crnd Crustol
mqior categories. The table lists some of the outcrop of the Major
characteristics and structures, followed by textures and k Types
characteristic minerals. Note that any single characteris-
tic may not be sufficient to categorize the rock; a mun- The earliest geologic maps (for example, William Smith's
ber of features may have to be used. Unfamiliar and tech- famous pioneering map of Britain) date from about 1800,
nical terms that we use now or later are either defined and most parts of the Earth have now been mapped ei-
in the text or found in the Glossary. Glossary terms are ther in detail or at a reconnaissance scale. Using these
indicated by bold t5rpe in the text. maps and related literature, we can determine the rela-
A reasonably common educational practice in col- tive abundances of igneous, sedimentarlr, and metamor-
leges and universities is to construct undergraduate phic rocks on the continents. The method used to obtain
courses that teach about igneous and metamorphic rocks the data is to generate random latitudes and longitudes
in one course and sedimentar5r rocks in another (com- by computer and then examine existing maps to deter-
monly linked with either sedimentation or stratigraphy). mine the frequency of igneous, sedimentary, and meta-
An important reason for this treatment is not tempera- morphic outcrops. Results indicate that Earth's exposed
ture or pressue, but the degree of chemical equilibra- surface area is about 66 percent sedimentary rocks and
tion in each of the mqior rock types. By and large, clas- 34 percent igneous and metamorphic rocks. The bulk of
tic sedimentary rocks are "accidental" accumulations of the 34 percent is probably igneous, but large parts of
constituent minerals, which depend on a number of fac- some continents have been mapped as "undifferentiated
tors such as relative mineral durability in a weathering, igneous and metamorphic rocks," so exact percentages
erosional, and transport cycle and the array ofrock types are uncertain. As detailed geologic mapping proceeds
in the provenance area, that is, the source area for the worldwide, a better estimate will eventually be possible.
sediments that have ultimately been deposited in any The data for sedimentary rocks reveal the extent to
sedimentary environment. Some initial approach to equil- which detailed information may be lost over time (Fig-
ibration may occur in the lithification process, particu- ure I-1). The data indicate that half of all exposed sedi-
larly in cementation, but the clastic particles typically re- mentary rocks are younger than 130 Ma (that is, Creta-
main out of chemical equilibrium. Of course, the degree ceous or younger). Interpretations based on older rocks
of equilibrium is much higher in precipitated or evapor- must therefore be less comprehensive than those based
itic sedimentary rocks. on more recent rocks. Bear in mind that older sedimen-
Conversely, the minerals of igneous and metamor- tary rocks are more likely to have been recycled into
phic rocks are far from random: the processes of crystal- metamorphic rocks or even melted to form crustally de-
lization from a magma and solid-state recrystallization rived magmas. It should also be remembered that the
involve energy minimization according to the rules of proportional rock estimates given here are areal esti-
thermodlmamics, and the minerals that occur together mates based on surface exposure, and are highly un-
as an assemblage are typically in chemical equilibrium at likely to correspond to volumetric estimates for the
the conditions of their formation. Commonly such rocks whole crust. Because pressure and temperature increase
contain some alteration minerals that formed during with depth generally, notjust in orogenic belts, the deeper
cooling or later metamorphism, but these are minor per- crust is bound to have signiflcantly higher proportions of
turbations to the overall state of equilibrium. metamorphic and igneous rocks.
Thus the study of igneous and metamorphic rocks The crust is usually defined as the outer shell of the
must involve some appreciation for the rules of chem- Earth above the Mohorovicic discontinuity, or MOHO.
istry and physics that govern mineral stabilities and the The terms crast and lithosphere are not synonyrnous.
common associations of minerals in these rocks. This The lithosphere contains both crust (oceanic or conti-
commonality of approach has usually led to joint study nental) and a portion of upper mantle to an average
of igneous and metamorphic rocks and separate study of depth of about 100 lcn, and it generally constitutes the
sedimentary rocks. But keep in mind that the discipline tectonic plates. Lithosphere is thinner in oceanic plates
 Y
Why Study Petrolow? ::**:..

>r I C I o la, q ', 1-1C Because the whole Earth has a radius of about 6371
: l.s i.!
€Ii
6
tE tEt E olol! ,o km, only the outer 0.27 percent of the radius is crust
,c l.: lElEl& 'Fla16 o E
(0.74 percent of the volume of the Earth). Nevertheless,
101 ll
50 O rLl
d
o
-ol
l
I
U
the crust is the only part of the Earth that is directly ex-
4t U
ln posed for examination, and only a small part of it is ac-
o tually seen. The subject matter of petrology is thus largely
oio analysis of the composition, structure, and origin of
o
o
crustal rocks. However, we will examine how the prob-
b0
lems of understanding the origin of some crustal rocks
)(\
=
o
O
are inextricably linked to the nature of the material be-
A low the crust in the mantle. Petrologists eagerly exploit
10 any opportunities to sample deeper levels below the sur-
face, in the form of deep mines, drill holes, or unusual,
deeply derived magmas. It is sobering to keep in mind,
0 100 200 300 400 s00 600 however, how little in petrology can be directly seen and
Age, millions of years how much of our larger-scale lcrowledge is derived from
theory laboratory experiment, and inference.
fiaSri{*'*e;.rs+ei*l*i*'+;-
{W,Wm,{##l rne re}otionship between the oge of
sedimentory rocks ond the omount of outcrop oreo. References and Additional Recrdings
lFrom H. Blott ond R. L. Jones, 1975, Geol. Soc. Am. BuJl.
86, Fig. I.l American Association of Petroleum Geologists and U.S.
Geological Survey. 1967. Basement map of North
America between latitudes 24" and 60' N. U.S. Geo-
logical Survey Map.
(< 100 lcn) and thicker in continental plates (> 100 lan). Blatt, H. 1970. Determination of mean sediment thick-
The asthenosphere lies directly below the lithosphere ness in the crust: a sedimentologic method,. Geot.
and is indicated by an abrupt decrease in mantle seismic Soc. Am. Bull. 8l:255-262.
velocities. Geophysical data reveal that the mean thick- Blatt, H., and R. L. Jones. 1975. Proportions of exposed
ness of the entire crust is about 17 lan. Continental crust igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. Geol.
averages about 40 km and is dominated by granitoid Soc. Am. Bull. 86:1085-1088.
rocks, whereas the oceanic crust averages less than 10 Dietrich, R. V., and B. J. Skinner. 1979. Rocks and, Rock
lan and is basaltic. However, there is a substantial total Minerak. New York Wiley.
range in continental crustal thiclcress. Mean sedimen- Jackson, J. A., ed. lgg7. Glossary of Geotogy, 4th ed,.
tary rock thiclcress on continental areas averages about Alexandria, VA: American Geological Institute.
1.8 lan, and these continental areas occupy about Bb per- M4ior periodicals containing significant petrologic liter-
cent of Earth's surface. In ocean basins, sedimentary ature include American Jountal of Science, Ameri^
cover is very thin, approximately 0.3 lan. Combined data cqn Minera.l,ogist, Bulleti,n of the Geological Society
indicate that the average thiclaness of sedimentary rock of America, Canad,ian Mi,nerilogist, Contributi,on s
on the Earth's entire surface is about 0.8 lgn and that of to Mineralogg and Petrology, Geology, Journal of
igneous and metamorphic rocks about 16.2 km. Sedi- Geologg, Joutytal of MetamorTtluic Geology, Jownql
mentary rock thus forms about 4.8 percent of the entire of Petrology, [Link] of Sed,imentary Research,
crust by volume and 0.013 percent of the whole Earth. Lithos, Sed,i,ruentary Geology, and, Sed,immtology.

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f