MECH 223

Material Science

Instructor: Dr. Manar Younis

 Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding

Chapter 2 focuses on atomic structure and interatomic

bonding. These topics explain how materials are built at
the atomic level and how atoms interact with one
another to form solids. The concepts presented here
form the foundation for understanding mechanical
strength, electrical conductivity, thermal behavior, and
many other engineering properties discussed later in the
course.
 Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding

Studying atomic bonding is essential in materials

science. Materials made of the same element can behave
very differently depending on how atoms bond together.
Carbon is a clear example: in graphite, bonding allows
layers to slide easily, while in diamond, strong
directional bonds create extreme hardness and electrical
insulation.
 Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding

This emphasizes that material properties depend on

both atomic arrangement and interatomic forces.
The chapter reviews atomic structure, electron
configurations, and bonding mechanisms to be used
for later discussions on crystal structures and
material behavior.
 Atomic Structure
• Atoms consist of very small nucleus made up of protons and
neutrons, with electrons moving around the nucleus.
• Both electrons and protons are electrically charged, the charge
magnitude being 1.602 × 10 e −19 C, which is negative in sign for
electrons and positive for protons; neutrons are electrically neutral.
• Although electrons have very small mass, they play the dominant
role in bonding and interactions between atoms. Understanding
these subatomic particles is essential for explaining material
behavior.
 Atomic Structure

• Each chemical element is defined by its atomic

number (Z), which equals the number of protons in
the nucleus.
• In a neutral atom, the number of electrons equals the
atomic number.
• Atomic mass (A) depends on both protons and
neutrons (N) and influences density and other
material properties.
 Atomic Structure
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element that differ in
the number of neutrons. Because natural elements are
mixtures of isotopes, their atomic weights are usually
not integers.
• The atomic weight of an element corresponds to the
weighted average of the atomic masses of the atom’s
naturally occurring isotopes.
• This concept explains how atomic-scale variations
affect measurable material quantities.
 Atomic Structure
• The atomic mass unit provides a convenient scale for comparing atomic weight. A
scale has been established whereby 1 amu is defined as 1/12 of the atomic mass of
the most common isotope of carbon, carbon 12 (12C) (A = 12.00000).

• The atomic weight of an element or the molecular weight of a compound may be

specified on the basis of amu per atom (molecule) or mass per mole of material.

• In one mole of a substance, there are 6.022 × 10e23 (Avogadro’s number) atoms or
molecules.

• These two atomic weight schemes are related through the following equation: 1
amu/atom (or molecule) = 1 g/mol.

• For example, the atomic weight of iron is 55.85 amu/atom, or 55.85 g/mol.
Sometimes use of amu per atom or molecule is convenient; on other occasions, grams
(or kilograms) per mole is preferred.
 ELECTRONS IN ATOMS
Atomic Models

• Classical mechanics cannot fully explain the

behavior of electrons in atoms.
• Quantum mechanics was developed to describe
atomic-scale phenomena, introducing concepts
such as wave–particle duality and energy
quantization, which are essential for
understanding atomic bonding.
 Atomic Bonding in Solids
• The Bohr atomic model assumes electrons are assumed to revolve around the
atomic nucleus in discrete orbitals, and the position of any particular electron is
more or less well defined in terms of its orbital..

• Another important quantum-mechanical principle states that the energies of

electrons are quantized—that is, electrons are permitted to have only specific
values of energy.

• An electron may change energy, but in doing so, it must make a quantum jump
either to an allowed higher energy (with absorption of energy) or to a lower
energy (with emission of energy).
Orbital electron
• Often, it is convenient to think of these allowed electron energies as being
Nucleus

associated with energy levels or states.

FigUre 2.1 Schematic representation of the Bohr atom.

 Atomic Bonding in Solids

• This Bohr model was eventually found to have some significant

limitations because of its inability to explain several phenomena
involving electrons.
• A resolution was reached with a wave-mechanical model, in which
the electron is considered to exhibit both wavelike and particle-like
characteristics.
• With this model, an electron is no longer treated as a particle moving
in a discrete orbital; rather, position is considered to be the
probability of an electron being at various locations around the
nucleus.
 Quantum Numbers
• In wave mechanics, every electron in an atom is characterized by four
parameters called quantum numbers.
• The size, shape, and spatial orientation of an electron’s probability density
are specified by three of these quantum numbers.
• Furthermore, Bohr energy levels separate into electron subshells, and
quantum numbers dictate the number of states within each subshell. Shells
are specified by a principal quantum number n, which may take on
integral values beginning with unity; sometimes these shells are designated
by the letters K, L, M, N, O, and so on, which correspond, respectively, to n
= 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . , as indicated in Table 2.1.

• Note also that this quantum number, and it only, is also associated with the
Bohr model. This quantum number is related to the size of an electron’s
orbital (or its average distance from the nucleus).
• The second (or azimuthal) quantum number, l, designates the subshell.
Values of l are restricted by the magnitude of n and can take on integer
values that range from l = 0 to l = (n − 1). Each subshell is denoted by a
lowercase letter—an s, p, d, or f—related to l values as follows:
Quantum Numbers
 Quantum Numbers
• Electron configuration describes how electrons occupy available energy
states in an atom. Electrons fill the lowest energy states first according
to quantum rules.

• When all the electrons occupy the lowest possible energies in accord
with the foregoing restrictions, an atom is said to be in its ground
state.

• The electron configuration or structure of an atom represents the

manner in which these states are occupied. In the conventional
notation, the number of electrons in each subshell is indicated by a
superscript after the shell– subshell designation. For example, the
electron configurations for hydrogen, helium, and sodium are,
respectively, 1s1, 1s2, and 1s22s22p63s1.
 Periodic Table

• All the elements have been classified according to electron

configuration in the periodic table (Figure 2.8).
• Here, the elements are situated, with increasing atomic number, in
seven horizontal rows called periods.
• The arrangement is such that all elements arrayed in a given column
or group have similar valence electron structures, as well as chemical
and physical properties.
• The elements positioned in Group 0, the rightmost group, are the inert
gases, which have filled electron shells and stable electron
configurations.
 BONDING FORCES AND ENERGIES

• When atoms approach one another, they experience both attractive and
repulsive forces. The balance of these forces determines atomic spacing in
solids.
• Equilibrium spacing occurs when attractive and repulsive forces are equal
in magnitude. At this spacing, the atomic structure is stable.
• Bonding energy represents the energy required to separate atoms
completely.
• Bonding energy influences melting temperature, stiffness, and thermal
expansion.
• Stronger bonds generally lead to higher melting temperatures and greater
stiffness.
 BONDING FORCES AND ENERGIES

• Atomic bonding in solids is governed by interatomic forces that act

when atoms move close together.
• At large separations, atoms barely interact, but as distance
decreases they experience attractive forces (due to bonding
interactions between nuclei and electrons) and repulsive forces
(caused mainly by overlap of negatively charged electron clouds).
• The magnitudes of these forces depend on the interatomic distance.
Repulsion becomes significant only at very short distances when
electron shells overlap. The balance between attraction and
repulsion explains how atoms bind together and determines their
stable spacing in solids.
 BONDING FORCES AND ENERGIES

• When two atoms approach each other, the net interatomic force is the
combination of attractive and repulsive forces. As the separation distance
changes, the magnitudes of these forces change. At a particular distance,
the attractive and repulsive forces become equal and opposite, resulting in
zero net force. This distance is called the equilibrium atomic spacing, and
it represents a stable atomic configuration.
• Atomic interactions are often described using potential energy instead of
force. The total potential energy is the sum of the attractive and repulsive
energy components.
• The bonding energy is the energy required to separate two atoms
completely from this equilibrium position. Stronger bonding energy
indicates stronger atomic bonds and leads to higher melting temperatures,
greater stiffness, and improved thermal stability in materials.
 BONDING FORCES AND ENERGIES

• In real solids, many atoms interact simultaneously, but each atom can
still be described by a bonding energy. The magnitude of this energy
depends on the type of atomic bonding and strongly influence material
properties.
• Large bonding energies lead to high melting temperatures and solid
behavior, while smaller energies favor liquids or gases.
• Solids exhibit three primary bonding types: ionic, covalent, and
metallic, all involving valence electrons and driven by atoms seeking
stable electron configurations. Secondary bonds are weaker but still
affect the physical properties of many materials.
 PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDS
IONIC BONDING
• Ionic bonding occurs between metallic and nonmetallic elements,
typically located at opposite sides of the periodic table. In this type of
bonding, metal atoms lose valence electrons while nonmetal atoms gain
electrons, allowing both to achieve stable (inert gas) electron
configurations. As a result, atoms become charged ions—positive
cations and negative anions.
• A classic example is sodium chloride (NaCl), where a sodium atom
donates its valence electron to a chlorine atom, forming Na⁺ and Cl⁻
ions. The bond between these ions is due to coulombic (electrostatic)
attraction between oppositely charged ions, which holds the solid
together.
 PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDS
IONIC BONDING

• In ionic solids, the attractive interaction between ions is governed by

electrostatic (Coulombic) forces, which depend on the distance between
ions. The attractive energy decreases with separation, while a repulsive
energy arises at very short distances due to electron cloud overlap. The
balance between these two interactions determines the equilibrium spacing
and bond strength.
• Ionic bonds are generally strong, because ions have high charges and small
separation distances. As a result, ionic solids typically exhibit high bonding
energies and high melting temperatures.
 PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDS
COVALENT BONDING
• Covalent bonding occurs when atoms share valence electrons to achieve
stable electron configurations. This type of bonding is common in
nonmetallic elements and in materials such as diamond, silicon, germanium,
and many polymers. The shared electrons belong to both atoms and form
strong, directional bonds between them.
• Covalently bonded materials are typically hard and brittle and are often
electrical insulators or semiconductors. A common example is the methane
(CH₄) molecule, where carbon shares electrons with four hydrogen atoms,
forming four covalent bonds. The number of covalent bonds an atom can
form is determined by its valence, which depends on its electron
configuration.
 PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDS
COVALENT& METALLIC BONDING
• Covalent bonding can form three-dimensional network structures, such
as diamond, where atoms are strongly bonded in all directions. These
materials typically have very high melting temperatures, high hardness,
and are often brittle. The number of covalent bonds an atom can form is
determined by its valence, which depends on its electron configuration.
• Metallic bonding, the third primary bond type, occurs in metals. In this
model, valence electrons are not bound to individual atoms but form a
shared “electron sea” that moves freely among positively charged ion
cores. This nondirectional bonding explains key metallic properties such
as high electrical and thermal conductivity, ductility, and moderate to
high melting temperatures.
 PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDS
COVALENT& METALLIC BONDING
• In metallic bonding, electrons are free to move throughout the solid and are
not associated with any specific atom. This nondirectional bonding explains
why metals exhibit high electrical and thermal conductivity, as well as
good ductility and malleability.
• The type of bonding in a material strongly influences its mechanical and
physical properties. Metals tend to deform plastically rather than fracture,
whereas ceramics and ionically bonded materials are generally brittle due
to the nature of their bonding and charged ions.
• In addition to primary bonds, materials may also experience secondary
(van der Waals) bonding, which is much weaker than ionic, covalent, or
metallic bonding. Although weak, these secondary forces still affect
material behavior, especially in polymers.
 SECONDARY BONDING OR VAN DER WAALS
BONDING
• Secondary (van der Waals or physical) bonds are much weaker than
primary (ionic, covalent, or metallic) bonds. These bonds exist between
almost all atoms and molecules, but their effects are often masked when
strong primary bonds are present. Secondary bonding is especially
important in inert gases where atoms within molecules are covalently
bonded but molecules themselves are held together by weak forces.
• Hydrogen bonding is a special and relatively strong form of secondary
bonding that occurs in molecules containing hydrogen, and it plays an
important role in determining the physical properties of many materials
and molecular structures.
 CHAPTER SUMMARY
• Materials are different because atoms are arranged differently and bonded differently.
Bonding explains strength, melting point, brittleness, conductivity, etc.
• Atomic Structure (What atoms are made of)
An atom has:
• Nucleus → protons (+) and neutrons (0)
• Electrons (−) → move around the nucleus
• Atomic number (Z) = number of protons
• Electrons = protons (in neutral atom)
• Electrons & energy levels
Electrons don’t move randomly, they occupy energy levels (shells).
• The outermost electrons (valence electrons) are the most important → they control bonding.
• Atoms want their outer shell to be full (stable).
 CHAPTER SUMMARY
Atoms bond to become more stable and to lower their energy.
They do this by giving electrons, taking electrons and sharing electrons.
Types of Primary Bonds
A) Ionic Bonding B) Covalent Bonding C) Metallic Bonding

Electron transfer Electron sharing “Sea of electrons”

• One atom gives electrons • Atoms share electrons Electrons move freely between atoms

• Other atom takes electrons • Bond is directional Example:

Positive and negative ions attract. Example: • Copper

Example: NaCl Diamond (C–C) • Aluminum

Na → gives 1 electron → Na⁺ Properties: • Steel

Cl → takes 1 electron → Cl⁻ • Very strong bonds Properties:

Properties: • Hard materials • Good electrical & thermal

• Strong bonds • Often insulators conductivity

• High melting point • Brittle • Ductile

• Brittle Found in: Semiconductors • Malleable

• Poor electrical conductivity • Shiny

Found in: Ceramics Found in: Metals

 CHAPTER SUMMARY
Types of Secondary (Weak) Bonds
Van der Waals Bonds Hydrogen Bonding
• Temporary dipoles • Strongest secondary bond
• Weak attraction • Happens when H bonds with O, N, or F
Example: Properties:
• Water • Low melting point
• Polymers • Soft materials

Bonding Energy & Distance

Bonding energy
• Energy needed to separate atoms
• Higher bonding energy → stronger material → higher melting point
Equilibrium distance
• Distance where attraction = repulsion
• Determines atomic spacing

Material Bond Type Properties

Metals Metallic Conductive, ductile
Ceramics Ionic/Covalent Hard, brittle
Polymers Covalent + secondary Soft, low melting