Acta Psychologica 263 (2026) 106205

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Enhancing the emotion regulation of preschool children through the

EmoPlay Pals App: Evidence from China
Meng Yao , Melissa Ng Lee Yen Abdullah *
Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Although interest in technology-assisted interventions is increasing, studies involving preschool-aged children
Digital app remain limited. This gap is especially evident in the lack of empirical work on culturally adapted digital tools that
Emotion regulation help young children manage their emotions. In the Chinese context, most existing approaches continue to rely on
Preschool children
traditional materials such as picture books, and only a small number of studies have examined interactive ap­
Quasi-experimental study
plications grounded in psychological theory. To address this gap, the present study examined the effectiveness of
the EmoPlay Pals App, an interactive Mandarin-language application designed with familiar cultural contexts,
everyday preschool routines, and age-appropriate role models for Chinese children. A quasi-experimental pre-
test–post-test design with a delayed post-test was used. The sample consisted of 100 preschool children aged 4–5
years from two kindergartens in Chengdu, China, randomly assigned to either the experimental group (n = 50) or
the control group (n = 50). Over eight weeks, the experimental group used the EmoPlay Pals App during
classroom activities, while the control group continued with picture-book–based emotional learning activities.
Emotion regulation was assessed at baseline, immediately after the intervention, and again three weeks later.
Semi-structured interviews with teachers added further insight into classroom behaviours and children's use of
the strategies taught. Repeated-measures ANOVA showed a significant group × time interaction, with the
experimental group showing improvements that continued beyond the intervention period. Teachers echoed
these patterns, reporting noticeable gains in attention, impulse control, and adaptability among the children who
used the app. Overall, the findings show that a theory-informed, culturally grounded digital tool can mean­
ingfully support preschool children's emotion-regulation development, pointing to its potential value in early
childhood education.

1. Introduction Chinese preschool children to regulate emotions remains insufficient

(Xie et al., 2021). Moreover, China's highly structured education system
Emotion regulation is a complex and multidimensional process places considerable pressure on students, including preschoolers, who
involving the conscious use of cognitive resources to perceive, recognise, are already expected to meet demanding academic standards imposed
understand, and manage emotions (Chambers et al., 2009). Early by both schools and families at a young age. These combined cultural
childhood is a critical developmental stage for acquiring emotion and educational pressures create distinctive challenges for Chinese
regulation skills, which are not only linked to children's mental health children in developing emotion regulation (Deng et al., 2022).
but also exert a profound and lasting influence on their social adaptation A large of body of psychological research points to traits such as
and future interpersonal relationships (Wyman et al., 2010). According social difficulties, impulsive behaviour and inattention stemming from a
to the latest Chinese ‘Guidelines for Learning and Development of lack of emotional regulation skills in young children (Spinelli et al.,
Children Aged 3-6’ (Huang et al., 2022), the emotional development 2021). In the preschool stage, children are in a sensitive period of self-
requirements for 4–5-year-old children specify that they should regulation development, and their executive brain functions, and
demonstrate emotional stability, the capacity to express positive emo­ emotion recognition and expression systems are not yet fully mature.
tions, and the ability to apply regulation strategies appropriately. The ability to regulate negative emotions and maintain positive emo­
However, a growing body of research indicates that the ability of tions is, thus, crucial to their physical health, emotional health, and

* Corresponding author at: School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia.
E-mail address: melissa@[Link] (M.N.L.Y. Abdullah).

[Link]
Received 23 September 2025; Received in revised form 25 December 2025; Accepted 2 January 2026
Available online 9 January 2026
0001-6918/© 2026 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license ([Link]
nc-nd/4.0/).
M. Yao and M.N.L.Y. Abdullah Acta Psychologica 263 (2026) 106205

cognitive development at this stage. Consequently, external support and 2. Literature review
systematic intervention are critical (Xie et al., 2021) (Rademacher &
Koglin, 2018). It is already common-practice among many educators to 2.1. Traditional emotion regulation intervention research
encourage the implementation of evidence-based interventions and
practices which address social, emotional, and behavioural needs in Social learning theory asserts that children learn emotion regulation
educational settings. Through such intervention, children can acquire by observing and imitating the behaviour of others, especially parents
additional skills and knowledge to support the regulation of their and peers (Tang et al., 2023). Therefore, emotion regulation interven­
emotions (McLeod et al., 2017; Zheng, 2023). In recent years, digital tion emphasises role modelling and imitation learning. As emotion
apps have shown great potential as innovative tools in the field of mental guides, parents can use emotion education techniques to help children
health and emotion regulation; their convenience, interactivity, and recognise and manage emotions (Li et al., 2023). Role-playing games
universality have positioned them as practical options for emotional- have also been shown to help children learn how to control and express
regulation education (e.g., Bettis et al., 2022; Gómez-Cambronero emotions in simulated social situations through simulated scenarios
et al., 2024; Nicolaidou et al., 2022). However, the majority of these (Lahiya et al., 2022). Evidence shows that emotion regulation ability is
digital apps focus on function and structure, and are primarily aimed at closely related to children's cognitive development, especially at 4–5,
adults, ignoring the effectiveness of app intervention for preschool when children are transitioning from relying on external help to
children. Furthermore, existing Chinese research has concentrated autonomous regulation (Lin & Faldowski, 2023). This suggests that
mostly on older children (e.g., Hao & Zhu, 2020) and adolescents (e.g., effective intervention should strengthen both children's emotional un­
Gong et al., 2022), and few studies discussed emotion regulation inter­ derstanding and their growing capacity for self-control. Cognitive
vention for children aged 4–5 years. Additionally, most available studies behavioural therapy helps children identify negative emotions, recog­
continue to rely on traditional, non-digital approaches (e.g., Tian, nise the irrational components of emotions, and regulate emotions
2022). Of course, pre-school intervention in other regions (e.g. Rashedi through developing healthier thinking patterns (Terjesen et al., 2021).
et al., 2021) offer useful references, but their applicability in China is Social-emotional learning theories also suggest that children learn
limited due to cultural differences. Overall, research on digital tools for emotion regulation skills in social interactions (Hosokawa et al., 2024).
supporting emotion regulation among Chinese preschool children is still Traditional social-emotional learning intervention methods generally
at an early stage and lacks theory-driven, systematically designed in­ include emotion awareness training, emotion expression training, and
terventions. To address these gaps, the present study draws on social skills training. For example, children learn how to regulate emo­
Emotional Intelligence Theory and Gross's process model of emotion tions in different social situations through role-playing activities and
regulation to develop EmoPlay Pals, a digital intervention tailored for emotion card-matching games. In addition, some studies have shown the
preschool children aged 4–5. Using a quasi-experimental design, this effectiveness of play therapy using toys, sandbox games, etc., to enable
study evaluates the effects of the intervention on three core dimensions children to express their emotions in an informal environment (e.g.,
of emotion self-regulation: attention, impulse control, and adaptability. Kaizar & Alordiah, 2023). Similarly, art therapy can help children ex­
The following research questions are considered: press their emotions through visual and auditory stimulation while
1. Do preschool children who use the EmoPlay Pals App demonstrate enhancing their ability to understand emotions (Haeyen, 2024).
better emotion regulation (attention, impulse control, and adaptability) Currently, Chinese scholars have implemented various intervention
than those who use the general picture book approach? measures to improve children's emotional regulation and abilities (e.g.,
2. Do preschool children demonstrate significant and sustained im­ Tian, 2022; Xie et al., 2021), such as emotional-themed picture books,
provements in emotion self-regulation (attention, impulse control, and music activities, themed cartoons, situational ball games, educational
adaptability) after using the EmoPlay Pals App? dramas, etc. These interventions have achieved varying degrees of sig­
3. How do teachers describe observed changes in preschool children's nificant effects, yet several limitations remain. First, these traditional
emotion regulation (attention, impulse control, and adaptability) after interventions require a specific time and place. This may result in chil­
using the EmoPlay Pals App? dren being unable to continue to receive interventions in extracurricular
Through using the EmoPlay Pals App, children are progressively or home environments, which minimises long-term effects. Second,
guided to recognise, understand, and regulate emotions in context, many traditional methods (such as picture books, situational games,
overcoming the limitations of prior research focussed solely on isolated educational dramas, etc.) rely on physical materials and teacher guid­
skills. The application also integrates scaffolded animation-based tasks ance and are consequently challenging to promote on a large scale,
and interactive operations, enabling parents and teachers to actively especially in resource-poor areas. These approaches often provide
participate in the intervention process. Compared with traditional ap­ limited opportunities for repeated practice and individualized feedback,
proaches, EmoPlay Pals offers a more accessible and engaging option by making it difficult for children to internalise regulation strategies
providing a structured, participatory, and child-friendly mode of inter­ beyond the intervention context. Traditional interventions predomi­
vention. The application is unique in its combination of emotion self- nantly utilize static materials and verbal instruction, resulting in rela­
regulation training with multisensory interactive technology, building tively limited interaction and difficulty maintaining young children's
a dynamic, contextualised, and operational learning environment. The attention and motivation over time. Besides, most research in China
design incorporates voice prompts, visual animations, and tactile feed­ focuses on children aged 5–6 years (e.g., Hao & Zhu, 2020) or adolescent
back to strengthen attention control and kinaesthetic engagement, and adult groups (e.g., Ding et al., 2022; Gong et al., 2022), while
thereby enhancing immersion and improving the validity of self- research on emotion regulation interventions for children aged 4–5
regulation strategies. One central feature of the app is the use of years, a critical developmental stage, is relatively scarce. Many prior
animated characters that portray everyday emotional challenges and studies rely predominantly on single post-intervention measurements or
model workable strategies, allowing children to observe, imitate, and short-term pre–post comparisons (e.g., Wu et al., 2021; Xie et al., 2021),
gradually apply these techniques in real situations. A key feature of the making it difficult to determine whether observed effects reflect stable
app is the use of animated characters that model emotional challenges developmental changes or transient. Similarly, quantitative methods
and solution strategies, encouraging children to imitate, internalise, and alone lack a deep understanding of the actual behavioural changes in
apply learned techniques, creating pathways for strategy generalisation. children in the classroom environment. Although intervention studies
In the implementation and testing of this application in context, the from other regions offer useful ideas, many are grounded in Western
study adds to current understanding of how digital interventions can be theories and classroom practices (e.g., Nicolaidou et al., 2021; Olson
developmentally designed to support emotion self-regulation in et al., 2019), which raises questions about cultural fit and limits their
preschool-aged children. direct application to Chinese preschool settings. Table 1 presents a

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M. Yao and M.N.L.Y. Abdullah Acta Psychologica 263 (2026) 106205

Table 1
Comparison of traditional emotion regulation interventions and the present digital app–based intervention.
Intervention approach Theoretical support Core mechanism Experimental Design Participants Implementation context

Emotion-themed picture book Emotion competence -Adult-guided story -Quasi-experimental Children aged 5–6 years -Classroom-based
interventions theory; Vygotsky's reading pre–post design across included studies -Teacher-led shared
(Hao & Zhu, 2020; Tian, sociocultural theory -Emotion word learning -Emotion recognition / reading
2022) -Emotion labelling tasks -Physical picture books;
understanding via story -Immediate post-test printed emotion cards
characters
-Guided discussion of
emotion situations
(causes & outcomes)
-Gradual internalisation
of emotion
understanding
Role-play and drama-based Vygotsky's sociocultural -Situation enactment -Quasi-experimental or Children aged 5–6 years -Classroom-based
interventions (Lahiya et al., theory -Behavioural rehearsal cluster-based design across multiple studies -Teacher- or adult-
2022; Richard et al., 2021; -Perspective-taking -Observational ratings and facilitated role-play
Tian, 2022) (role assumption) teacher reports sessions
-Guided imitation -Immediate post-test -Physical props,
-Guided feedback and costumes, puppets,
coaching situational setups
Cognitive training–based Executive function theory; -Inhibitory control -Randomised or quasi- Children aged -Classroom- or lab-based
interventions (Muir et al., Cognitive development training experimental design approximately 4–7 years -Adult-supervised
2023; Xie et al., 2021) theory -Attentional control -Standardised executive across the included individual or small-
training function and emotion- studies group tasks
regulation tasks -Physical cognitive tasks;
-Immediate post-test rule-based games;
worksheets
Manualized program–based Social–emotional learning -Explicit instruction -Cluster-based quasi- Mostly 5–6-year-olds -Classroom-based,
social–emotional learning framework; Social cognitive -Guided practice experimental design across the included curriculum-driven
interventions theory (Bandura) -External reinforcement -Standardised SEL and studies -Teacher-delivered
(Badau & Trifan, 2022; Bilir behaviour rating scales scripted lessons
Seyhan et al., 2019; Wu et al., -Immediate post-test -Printed manuals, story
2021) cards, puppets, activity
materials
This study: EmoPlay Pals App Social learning theory -Process-oriented -Mixed-methods quasi- Preschool children aged -Hybrid delivery
(Bandura) emotion regulation experimental design 4–5 years (classroom + home)
Active learning theory (Gross model) -Task-based measures and -Adult-supported but
(Piaget) -Interactive feedback qualitative interviews child-initiated
Vygotsky's sociocultural loops -Pre–post–delayed follow- interaction
theory -Gradual support-to- up -Multisensory and
Gross's emotion regulation independence gamified design
process model transition incorporating
Piaget's Developmental -Child-initiated animations
Theory regulation practice -Audio narration and
situational scenarios
-Child-friendly
interactions.

comparison between traditional emotion regulation interventions and help children learn empathy, patience, and emotional control. Papada­
the digital app–based approach employed in the present study. kis (2022) emphasises that age-appropriate digital programming apps
can improve children's concentration and self-regulation through
2.2. Digital app emotion regulation intervention research gamified learning.
Additionally, digital emotion regulation interventions are clearly
Technological development has brought forth a series of emotion superior to traditional methods in accessibility and cost-effectiveness
regulation interventions based on mobile apps (e.g., Bettis et al., 2022; (Camilleri & Camilleri, 2023; Vaiopoulou et al., 2023). Whether in
Jadhakhan et al., 2022; Montazami et al., 2022). Various studies have urban or rural areas, as long as they have smart devices and an internet
shown that preschool children can learn and interact through digital connection, users can access relevant emotion regulation intervention
applications (Samuelsson et al., 2024), and that app-based interventions resources anytime (Mushquash et al., 2024). App-based interventions
are more portable than traditional interventions (Zhang et al., 2024). provide a viable alternative for children without regular professional
Further, they are more suitable for modern families and educational psychological services (Brown & Bewick, 2023). Moreover, unlike
environments (Quan et al., 2024). Parents and teachers can more easily traditional interventions that require guidance from professional
integrate digital tools into children's daily activities without arranging teachers or counselors, once developed, apps can be widely promoted
specific times and venues. Currently, many digital emotion regulation and used without additional labor costs (Hinze et al., 2023; Voshaar
apps have designed interactive content, such as gamification training, et al., 2023), making them a highly cost-effective tool in schools and
task challenges, and situational simulations (Kotsopoulos et al., 2024; families with limited resources. Existing digital apps have progressed in
Lin & Hou, 2024). This type of interactive design can not only attract function and form, and studies have shown that digital tools have a
children's attention and improve their interest in learning (Abd Kadir specific positive effect on early childhood emotion regulation inter­
et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2021; Yao et al., 2024) but also enable children to vention (Hopman et al., 2023; LaMonica et al., 2024).
master the ability to identify and regulate emotions in a pleasant at­ Digital apps incorporating Wearable Biosensing enhance children's
mosphere through gamification emotion recognition training (Nunes ability to self-awareness and regulate their emotions (Palermo et al.,
et al., 2025). Bers (2022) argues that digital programming activities can 2023). However, it is important to consider that some studies have

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M. Yao and M.N.L.Y. Abdullah Acta Psychologica 263 (2026) 106205

pointed out from ethical and social perspectives that digital apps pose regulation into the interactive design of the app, allowing children to
potential risks to children's mental health (e.g., Jadhakhan et al., 2022; sequentially experience five steps in a contextualised process: situation
Wadley et al., 2020). Currently, many digital emotion regulation apps selection, situation modification, attention allocation, cognitive reap­
(e.g., Dietel et al., 2024) are rooted in Western cultural backgrounds, praisal, and response regulation. Children first select different emotional
highlighting individualism and direct emotional expression, whereas situations, then adjust their role-playing behaviour by clicking, partic­
Chinese preschoolers may rely more on social support, such as guidance ipate in deep breathing exercises, and observe alternative strategies and
from family and teachers, in emotion regulation. Therefore, these apps their results, ultimately achieving stable emotional regulation. Through
may be difficult to apply to Chinese preschoolers, limiting their appli­ this structured process, the app goes beyond simply presenting
cation in the local education system. Furthermore, most of these studies emotional knowledge; instead, it guides children to actively practice and
focus on the apps' functional design, technical implementation, or
theoretical framework, with less empirical verification of their inter­
vention effect. Importantly, the various apps that have appeared in Table 2
China are mainly used for psychological counselling, stress relief, psy­ Mapping of theoretical foundations to the functional design of the EmoPlay Pals
chological education, etc., and most of them are developed for adults, App.
rather than child intervention experiments. Theoretical Key Theoretical Corresponding App Features /
Framework Constructs Design Elements
2.3. Theoretical framework of EmoPlay Pals App Emotional -Emotion perception -Six-category emotion
Intelligence -Emotion understanding recognition tasks (happiness,
This study uses emotional intelligence theory (Mayer & Salovey, Theory -Emotion expression anger, sadness, fear, disgust,
-Emotion regulation surprise)
1997) and integrates emotion recognition, understanding, expression,
-Scenario-based emotional
and regulation. Unlike traditional viewing materials, the app guides stories and animations
children to actively practice these four abilities in multiple scenarios visualising causes and changes
through the use of interactive tasks, instant feedback, and situational of emotions
simulations, thereby promoting the construction and internalisation of -Guided verbal and mimicry
based emotional expression
emotional knowledge. As we have touched upon earlier, children's
tasks
emotion regulation abilities are influenced by cognitive development. -Deep-breathing practice,
Children aged 4–5 are in the pre-operational stage, with limited abstract strategy selection, and calming
thinking ability, and their understanding of emotions depends mainly on routines for regulation
specific situations, intuitive perception, and visual cues (Djambazova- Piaget's Cognitive -Preoperational stage -Story-driven scenes and
Development relies on concrete and pictorial animations linking
Popordanoska, 2016). To cater for these specific needs, this application Theory perceptual cues emotions to concrete contexts
employs a multi-sensory presentation approach, incorporating story­ -Limited abstract -Multisensory inputs (visual,
telling, emotionally charged scenarios, and animated character dem­ reasoning auditory, motor clicks)
onstrations, to facilitate children's understanding of the causes and -Emerging perspective- supporting intuitive
taking skills understanding
consequences of emotional events through observation, imitation, and
-Role-based interactions
active participation. Moreover, children at this stage begin to show an (helping Bob make choices)
ability to think from the perspective of others. Consequently, tasks such enhancing early perspective-
as “choosing a role's perspective” and “helping Bob make a choice” taking
encourage children to think about emotional triggers and possible Vygotsky's -Zone of Proximal -Gradual, levelled learning
Sociocultural Development (ZPD) path (recognition → calming →
coping strategies from the perspective of a certain role or character's Theory & -Guided learning through strategy practice)
perspective; thereby further promoting emotional understanding and Scaffolding scaffolds -System prompts, voice
empathy. Furthermore, the app's interactive and feedback mechanisms -Social interaction guidance, and animated
draw upon Bandura's social learning theory (Bandura, 1977). The leading to internalisation modelling as scaffolding tools
-Reduced prompts as
animated character, Bob, demonstrates specific behaviours such as
competency increases,
emotional outbursts, deep breathing, and cognitive reappraisal in fostering independent mastery
different scenarios. Children observe Bob's behavioural outcomes, -Optional co-use with
imitate his strategies, and then participate through clicks, thus forming teachers/parents reinforcing
an observation-imitation-reinforcement learning path. Voice prompts social interaction
Bandura's Social -Observational learning -Character “Bob” demonstrates
and emotional expressions further enhance children's self-efficacy, Learning Theory -Behavioural modelling emotional reactions and
strengthening their beliefs that they can regulate their own emotions. -Development of self- regulatory behaviours
Appertaining to Vygotsky's sociocultural theory (1978), and with a efficacy -Children imitate breathing,
particular emphasis on scaffolding support (Mermelshtine, 2017), the calming, and strategy use
through interactive tasks
application's interactive structure employs a progressive task design,
-Visualised consequences
moving from easy to difficult: recognising and matching a single strengthen perceived self-
emotion (basic cognition); guiding children to practice deep breathing efficacy in emotion regulation
and relaxation strategies through interactive clicks (body regulation); Gross's Emotion -Situation selection - Children choose emotional
providing scenario simulations of various emotion regulation strategies Regulation -Situation modification challenge scenarios
Process Model -Attention allocation - Click-based adjustments alter
(strategy selection); and promoting strategy internalisation through role -Cognitive reappraisal character behaviour or event
feedback and scenario reproduction (reflection and transfer). This -Response modulation outcomes
structure aligns with the Zone of Proximal Development recommenda­ - Guided breathing animation
tions, which suggest that children initially complete tasks with system shifts attention to bodily
sensations
prompts and role demonstrations; then prompts can be gradually
- Alternative explanations and
reduced allowing children to independently choose appropriate emotion strategy scenes presented
regulation methods. Crucially, the app encourages parents and teachers through animations
to use it together, reinforcing the social interaction-internalisation - Practice of breathing and
mechanism put forward by Vygotsky. strategy execution finalises
emotional adjustment
This study also incorporates Gross's (1998, 2002) model of emotion

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gradually internalise emotion regulation skills through continuous intervention procedures, and data protection measures. Exclusion
contextual experiences and interactive exercises. Table 2 presents the criteria were as follows: (1) children with diagnosed neuro­
mapping of theoretical foundations to the functional design of the developmental disorders (e.g., autism spectrum disorder); (2) children
EmoPlay Pals App. who had received any psychological intervention related to emotion
regulation within the past six months; and (3) children whose parents
3. Methodology declined participation.

3.1. Research design 3.3. Intervention

This study adopted a quasi-experimental design, as shown in Fig. 1, 3.3.1. Functions of EmoPlay Pals App
with the subjects divided into experimental and control groups. The As shown in Fig. 2, the app consists of two core sections: emotion
experimental group used the EmoPlay Pals App, while the control group recognition and emotion regulation training. Children can click the icon
received no intervention and only read the emotional picture book as on the left to enter the emotion recognition interface, which covers six
usual. Moreover, to further evaluate the effect of the app intervention, basic emotion types: anger, sadness, fear, disgust, happiness, and sur­
this study also conducted a pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-test on prise. Each emotion is equipped with a specific image expression, sound
the experimental group to explore changes in emotion regulation before prompt, and concise text description to strengthen children's emotional
and after the intervention. Fig. 1 presents the quasi-experimental design perception ability through multisensory stimulation. The system sup­
of the study through which internal validity was strengthened. ports the learning of the characteristics of each emotion one by one (For
This included experimental and control groups, repeated measures at example, Icon 1: Angry). After completing the initial recognition
pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-test, and the use of both quantitative training, children are required to conduct an overall review and un­
and qualitative data. These features increase confidence that the dertake matching exercises in the centralised display interface to
observed improvements in attention, impulse control, and adaptability improve their emotion recognition ability.
were solely the result of the EmoPlay Pals App. External validity was Emotion regulation training is entered by clicking the icon on the
supported by embedding the intervention into real classroom activities right side of the main interface. An animated story clue is constructed
and obtaining teacher reports, which showed that the benefits were around three high-frequency negative emotional situations: anger,
evident in children's everyday learning contexts. Together, these ele­ sadness, and fear. The clue guides children to experience the complete
ments provide a strong basis for the credibility and applicability of the path of “recognising emotions → understanding emotions → expressing
findings. emotions → learning to regulate” in the context of advancement. Taking
the anger situation as an example, children first watch and identify the
emotional response of the character, help the character complete
3.2. Participants breathing relaxation training under the guidance of animation, and then
think about strategy selection, learning how to express anger in a non-
100 children from two full-day kindergartens in the Jinniu District, aggressive way, seek help or try to think from the perspective of
Chengdu, where student intake, teacher qualifications, and socioeco­ others in the prompts. To fit the cognitive development level of pre­
nomic backgrounds are relatively homogeneous, were randomly school children, the EmoPlay Pals App minimises text operations. It uses
selected. Participants were randomly assigned to either the experi­ voice-over explanations and dynamic animations as the main guidance
mental group or the control group using a computer-generated random forms to lower the operation threshold and increase the element of fun.
sequence, with each group comprising 4 classes of 25 children. The In addition to cooperating with the social interactive learning path, the
experimental group included 23 boys and 27 girls (28 aged 4 and 22 EmoPlay Pals App design encourages parents or teachers to collaborate,
aged 5), while the control group consisted of 25 boys and 25 girls (27 provide language feedback, empathy guidance, and strategy demon­
aged 4 and 23 aged 5). Written informed consent was obtained from all stration in training; thus forming a transition process from adult support
guardians after they were informed about the purpose of the study, the to autonomous regulation. Based on feedback from teachers and chil­
dren in a small-scale pilot study, we went on to improve the interface
design and interactive language.

3.3.2. Interaction flow of the EmoPlay pals app

The interaction flow of the EmoPlay Pals Apps, which leads children
through a simple but structured flow that helps them recognise and
manage emotions. Each step pairs the child's action with clear visual or
auditory guidance suited to preschoolers. The process begins when the
child selects an emotion, which triggers an animated scene that sets the
context. The app then highlights the character's emotional cues, making
it easier for the child to identify what the character is feeling. When the
child taps the character to offer help, the app introduces a calming ac­
tivity, usually guided breathing, to redirect attention and promote
bodily awareness. Children then choose coping strategies from illus­
trated options and watch the outcomes unfold. Trying different strate­
gies helps them compare effects and understand cause-effect
relationships in emotional situations. In classroom settings, the app also
prompts children to seek support from peers or teachers, adding a social
learning element. Each scenario ends with brief feedback that reinforces
what the child has practiced, followed by a simple reminder they can use
in real-life situations, encouraging transfer beyond the app. Table 3
presents the interaction flow of the EmoPlay Pals App.

Fig. 1. Quasi-experimental design of the study.

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Fig. 2. Operation interface of the EmoPlay Pals App.

3.3.3. Intervention process down, and selected coping options for anger, sadness, and fear. In the
The intervention lasted eight weeks, and both the experimental and final week, children completed integrated tasks within the app, applying
control groups received two 15-minute emotion-related lessons each recognition and regulation skills independently.
week. All sessions were delivered by the children's regular teachers, who The control group followed the same weekly themes but learned
received standardised training to ensure consistent implementation. The through traditional picture-book activities instead of digital tools. In the
weekly content for the app-based intervention was reviewed by four first four weeks, teachers used picture books to teach emotion labels,
experts in early childhood education and developmental psychology. emotional cues, and the causes of different feelings. In weeks five to
Children in the experimental group engaged with the EmoPlay Pals App. seven, regulation strategies—such as counting, using comforting ac­
The first four weeks focused on building emotion-recognition skills. tions, and reframing fearful thoughts—were introduced through themed
During this phase, children identified basic emotions through animated storybooks and guided discussion. In the eighth week, children reviewed
facial expressions, explored short scenario videos showing emotion- all previously learned skills through picture-book activities and simple
triggering situations, and watched simple story animations explaining role-play. No digital devices were used at any point. This structure
why characters felt particular emotions. ensured that both groups received equal instructional time and covered
Weeks five to seven introduced emotion-regulation strategies. Chil­ the same emotional content, with the primary difference being the mode
dren practised guided breathing, helped animated characters calm of delivery: an interactive digital app versus traditional picture-book

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Table 3
Interaction flow of the EmoPlay Pals App.
No Step Child's Action System Response Learning Function Emotion Regulation Stage

1 Scenario Selects an Plays a matching Sets emotional Situation

selection emotion. animated scene. context. Selection
2. Emotion Watches the Highlights Builds Situation
recognition character's emotional cues. recognition. Selection /
expressions. Modification
3. Start Taps character to Breathing Redirects Attention
calming help. animation begins. attention. Allocation
task
4. Breathing Follows guided Gives verbal Strengthens Response
practice breathing. encouragement. self-regulation. Modulation
5. Strategy Choosing a Shows outcome Supports Cognitive
choice coping strategy. of strategy. reflection. Reappraisal
6 Try Tests other Scene changes Encourages Cognitive
alternatives strategies. accordingly. flexibility. Reappraisal
7. Social Share ideas with Voice prompt Adds social Situation
prompt peer/teacher. encourages scaffolding. Modification /
discussion. Reappraisal
8. Feedback Completes Provides positive Reinforces Response
summary scenario. feedback. learning. Modulation
9. Real-life Selects 'Try in Provides real-life Supports skill Generalisation /
transfer real life.' prompt. transfer. Regulation
Maintenance

instruction. The on-site teaching activities are shown in Fig. 3. maintain task focus and resist emotional distraction was measured using
the Balance Beam, Pencil Tap, and Tower Task (Items A1–A10). Impulse
3.4. Research instruments control, or the ability to delay emotional reactions and inhibit impulsive
behaviours, was assessed using Toy Wrap, Toy Wait, and Snack Delay
This study employed Preschool Self-Regulation Assessment (PSRA; (Items B1–B8). Adaptability, referring to emotional flexibility and
Smith-Donald et al., 2007), comprising a task-based protocol and a 26- regulation in response to shifting demands, was measured through Toy
item assessor rating scale (Roid et al., 2003). Originally designed to Sort, Toy Return, and Tower Clean-up (Items C1–C8). To gain a deeper
measure general self-regulation, the PSRA was adapted to focus specif­ understanding of the actual impact of the EmoPlay Pals App on emotion
ically on emotional self-regulation by regrouping items into three vali­ regulation in preschool children, this study also used a semi-structured
dated dimensions: attention, impulse control, and adaptability, based on interview protocol with two preschool teachers who participated in
emotion regulation theory (Gross, 2015; Mayer & Salovey, 1997). The 4- the intervention. The questions focused on attention, impulse control,
point Likert scale enabled trained assessors to evaluate children's and adaptability. We asked teachers to describe any changes they
emotional regulation during tasks. Nine PSRA tasks and corresponding observed in children's behaviour. Example prompts included: “Have you
assessor rating items were reorganised to reflect the focus on emotional noticed improvements in children's attention during activities?” and “How do
regulation in this study. The pilot study confirmed that the scale has children react when routines or rules change after using the app?” Content
good reliability and validity. Specifically, attention, the ability to validity was established through expert review by 4 specialists in early

Fig. 3. On-site teaching activities.

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M. Yao and M.N.L.Y. Abdullah Acta Psychologica 263 (2026) 106205

childhood education (Yusoff, 2019), with the content validity index for 4.1. Quantitative statistical results
each item and the overall content validity index both being 1. Reliability
analyses indicated good internal consistency (Hair et al., 2017), with Fig. 4 presents the descriptive analyses conducted to examine
Cronbach's α values of 0.886 (Attention), 0.892 (Impulse Control), 0.879 changes in emotion regulation after the intervention, including atten­
(Adaptability), and 0.830 (Emotion Regulation). Pre-test analyses tion, impulse control, adaptability, and overall emotion regulation. In
confirmed no significant baseline differences between groups across regards attention, the experimental group improved from a baseline
emotion regulation, including attention, impulse control, and adapt­ mean of M = 2.05 to M = 2.26 at post-test, with a slight increase to M =
ability, indicating adequate group equivalence before the intervention. 2.35 at delayed post-test. However, the control group showed a down­
ward trend, decreasing from M = 2.00 at baseline to M = 1.97 at post-
3.5. Data analysis test and 1.5 at delayed post-test. A similar pattern was observed in the
experimental group on impulse control: scores rose from M = 1.82 to M
The quantitative data was analysed using SPSS 28 software. = 2.03, then to M = 2.09 at delayed post-test, whereas the control
Descriptive statistical analysis was performed on the pre-test, post-test, group's scores first increased and then decreased (from M = 2.01 to M =
and delayed post-test scores of the experimental and control groups, and 1.76 at the two time points after the intervention).
the mean was reported to indicate the trend change between the two In terms of adaptability, the experimental group exhibited a slight
groups. The pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-test data of the exper­ rise from M = 1.74 at baseline to M = 1.98 at post-test, maintaining the
imental and control groups were subjected to repeated measures gains at M = 2.07 during the delayed post-test. The control group,
covariance analysis to investigate the effects of app on the emotion however, increased from M = 1.70 to M = 1.98, then decreased to M =
regulation of 4–5-year-old Chinese children. This method is a powerful 1.74. A comparable tendency was observed for emotion regulation, with
statistical analysis method that can compare the differences between the experimental participants improving from M = 1.87 to M = 2.09 and
pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-test scores of the experimental then to M = 2.17, whereas the control group progressed from M = 1.83
group and the control group while controlling the influence of con­ to M = 1.99, then decreased to M = 1.66. These results suggest a clear
founding variables (Rogers & Revesz, 2019). Normality, homogeneity of and sustained benefit of the intervention across key self-regulatory
variance, and homogeneity of regression slopes were examined and met, functions, with changes evident not only immediately following the
ensuring the appropriateness of the covariance analysis (Johnson, intervention but also persisting several weeks later.
2016). Additionally, a paired sample t-test was used to analyse the Using repeated measures covariance analysis while controlling for
changes in the emotion regulation of children in the experimental group baseline (pre-test) scores, significant differences emerged between the
between the pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-test to explore the ef­ experimental and control groups across all four outcome variables:
fect of the app on individual emotional development. By comparing the attention, impulse control, adaptability, and emotion regulation
differences between each pair of samples, we can more clearly see how (Table 4). The main effect of the grouping was significant for attention
the dependent variable changes under the experimental conditions (F = 40.913, p < .001, partial η2 = 0.297), impulse control (F = 4.109, p
(Blair & Higgins, 1985). The semi-structured interview data were tran­ = .045, partial η2 = 0.041), and emotion regulation (F = 22.821, p <
scribed verbatim and analysed using thematic analysis with the support .001, partial η2 = 0.190), with large effect sizes for attention and
of NVivo 15 software. emotion regulation. This indicates that the experimental group consis­
tently outperformed the control group following the intervention. Sig­
3.6. Ethical considerations nificant time * group interactions were also observed for attention (F =
30.718, p < .001, partial η2 = 0.241), impulse control (F = 10.645, p =
This study complies with ethical standards and has been approved by .002, partial η2 = 0.099), adaptability (F = 10.629, p = .002, partial η2 =
Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (approval number: 0.099), and emotion regulation (F = 36.631, p < .001, partial η2 =
202409100008). Written informed consent was obtained from all par­ 0.274), with medium to large effect sizes, demonstrating that the Emo­
ents or legal guardians before data collection, and verbal assent was Play Pals intervention is more effective than traditional picture book
obtained from the participating children in age-appropriate language. methods in improving children's attention, impulse control, and adapt­
All procedures were strictly followed the Declaration of Helsinki, ability. Although the main effect of time was nonsignificant for atten­
ensuring voluntary participation, anonymity, and confidentiality. No tion, impulse control, and adaptability, a significant time × pre-test
identifiable personal information was recorded, and all data were used interaction was detected for emotion regulation (F = 4.737, p = .032,
solely for research purposes. Participants were free to withdraw at any partial η2 = 0.047), reflecting meaningful changes after controlling for
time without any consequences. baseline levels. The line graphs further illustrate these results. They
illustrate that the experimental group showed clear and sustained im­
4. Results provements from baseline to post-test and delayed post-test in all do­
mains, while the control group showed only minor changes over time.
Results are presented in line with the three research questions. For These findings demonstrate that the intervention had a strong and
the first research question, the analysis evaluates whether the preschool lasting impact on participants' self-regulation abilities, even after ac­
children who used EmoPlay Pals demonstrated greater improvements in counting for pre-existing differences at baseline.
emotion self-regulation, specifically attention, impulse control, and As shown in Table 5, Children demonstrated significant improve­
adaptability, compared to those in the picture-book control group. For ment from pre-test to post-test in emotional regulation (MD = − 0.22, t
the second research question, the analysis investigates whether children = − 5.34, p < .001), attention (MD = − 0.22, t = − 3.25, p = .002), im­
in the intervention group exhibited significant and sustained pre–post pulse control (MD = − 0.22, t = − 3.68, p < .001), and adaptability (MD
gains across these dimensions. For the third research question, qualita­ = − 0.24, t = − 3.27, p = .002). These gains were further reflected in the
tive findings from teacher interviews are reported to illustrate observed pre-test to delayed test comparisons, which showed even larger im­
changes in the preschool children's emotion self-regulation following the provements across dimensions. Although the post-test to delayed-test
intervention. Collectively, these results provide both quantitative and changes were small and mostly insignificant, the slight improvement
qualitative evidence for the effectiveness and contextual relevance of the observed in emotional regulation (MD = − 0.08, t = − 2.30, p = .026)
EmoPlay Pals intervention. suggests continued consolidation of skills. Moreover, effect sizes were
medium or large effects, with Cohen's d values exceeding 0.4 from pre-
test to post-test comparisons and remaining above 0.5 between pre-test
and delayed post-test. The results confirm that the intervention

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M. Yao and M.N.L.Y. Abdullah Acta Psychologica 263 (2026) 106205

Fig. 4. Comparison between the experimental group and the control group.

4.2. Qualitative findings

Table 4
Repeated measures ANCOVA for emotion regulation.
As presented in Table 6, the interviews highlighted clear improve­
Effect F df P Partial η2 Sig. ments in preschool children's emotion regulation following the app
Attention intervention, with consistent evidence across three main themes:
Time (Main Effect) 0.455 (1,97) 0.502 0.005 ns attention, impulse control, and adaptability. In terms of attention,
Time × Pre-Attention 2.077 (1,97) 0.153 0.021 ns teachers repeatedly observed an extended attention span. Children
Time × Group 30.718 (1,97) <0.001 0.241 ***
Pre-Attention (Covariate) 22.957 (1,97) <0.001 0.191 ***
could sustain focus on classroom tasks for longer than before. As one
Group 40.913 (1,97) <0.001 0.297 *** teacher noted, “…Previously they often lost focus in class, now they can
Impulse Control persist until…” (T3). Meanwhile, the app's multisensory and interactive
Time (Main Effect) 0.226 (1,97) 0.636 0.002 ns design enhanced engagement. Teachers described how children “stared
Time × Pre-Attention 0.964 (1,97) 0.329 0.01 ns
at the screen carefully and followed the character's actions” (T2), and how
Time × Group 10.645 (1,97) 0.002 0.099 **
Pre-Attention (Covariate) 66.178 (1,97) <0.001 0.406 *** “…the app provided voice prompts or interactive questions, children showed
Group 4.109 (1,97) 0.045 0.041 * higher engagement” (T1). Regarding impulse control, children demon­
Adaptability strated progress in delay of gratification. Rather than rushing or
Time (Main Effect) 0.085 (1,97) 0.771 0.001 ns competing, they increasingly paused and waited their turn. One teacher
Time × Pre-Attention 0.002 (1,97) 0.963 0.000 ns
Time × Group 10.629 (1,97) 0.002 0.099 **
emphasised, “Children lined up and waited instead of rushing” (T2).
Pre-Attention (Covariate) 14.868 (1,97) <0.001 0.133 *** Complementing this, children also adopted breathing and calming
Group 2.624 (1,97) 0.109 0.026 ns strategies modelled in the app. As observed, “They placed their hands on
Emotion Regulation the stomach to do deep breathing, …” (T3), and “…the breathing method
Time (Main Effect) 2.828 (1,97) 0.096 0.028 ns
learned from the animation was applied in class, …” (T4). Such practices
Time × Pre-Attention 4.737 (1,97) 0.032 0.047 *
Time × Group 36.631 (1,97) < 0.001 0.274 *** reflected the transfer of digital training into real classroom contexts. In
Pre-Attention (Covariate) 33.6 (1,97) < 0.001 0.257 *** terms of adaptability, teachers reported that children showed greater
Group 22.821 (1,97) < 0.001 0.19 *** acceptance of rule changes where they had previously resisted alter­
Notes: ***p < .001, **p < .01. Partial η2 effect sizes: 0.01 (small), 0.06 (me­ ations: “In the past they cried when rules changed, now they adapt smoothly,
dium), 0.14 (large). Time refers to post-test vs. delayed post-test comparisons. …” (T2). Beyond compliance, they also demonstrated more flexible
Group: (Experimental vs. Control) ns: Not significant problem-solving skills. Instead of giving up, they sought alternative
solutions or support, with one teacher explaining, “They asked peers or
produced sustained enhancements in emotion regulation. teachers for help rather than quitting” (T3). These findings indicate that
the app intervention not only improved attention and reduced impul­
sivity but also enabled children to adapt more effectively to changing

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M. Yao and M.N.L.Y. Abdullah Acta Psychologica 263 (2026) 106205

Table 5
Paired-samples t-tests and 95 % confidence intervals of mean differences.
Dimension Comparison MD SE 95 % CI (Lower, Upper) t(df) p Cohen's d

Emotion Regulation Pre – Post − 0.22 0.04 [− 0.31, − 0.14] − 5.34 (49) < 0.001 0.75
Pre – Delayed − 0.30 0.05 [− 0.40, − 0.21] − 6.39 (49) < 0.001 0.87
Post – Delayed − 0.08 0.03 [− 0.15, − 0.01] − 2.30 (49) 0.026 0.31
Attention Pre – Post − 0.22 0.07 [− 0.35, − 0.08] − 3.25 (49) 0.002 0.45
Pre – Delayed − 0.30 0.09 [− 0.48, − 0.13] − 3.55 (49) < 0.001 0.5
Post – Delayed − 0.09 0.06 [− 0.21, 0.04] − 1.39 (49) 0.171 0.19
Impulse Control Pre – Post − 0.22 0.06 [− 0.33, − 0.10] − 3.68 (49) < 0.001 0.52
Pre – Delayed − 0.28 0.07 [− 0.42, − 0.13] − 3.84 (49) < 0.001 0.54
Post – Delayed − 0.06 0.06 [− 0.18, 0.05] − 1.12 (49) 0.27 0.15
Adaptability Pre – Post − 0.24 0.07 [− 0.39, − 0.09] − 3.27 (49) 0.002 0.46
Pre – Delayed − 0.33 0.07 [− 0.46, − 0.19] − 4.83 (49) < 0.001 0.66
Post – Delayed − 0.09 0.06 [− 0.21, 0.04] − 1.41 (49) 0.164 0.2

Cd: Cohen's d = 0.2 (small), 0.5 (medium), 0.8 (large).

5. Discussion
Table 6
Themes and subthemes of children's emotion regulation in the interviews.
The data from the study clearly demonstrated that the attention level
Selected Statements Subthemes Themes of the children in the experimental group was significantly higher than
“Children could stay focused longer during Extended attention Attention that of the children in the control group, and also significantly higher
activities….” (T1) span than the level in their pre-test. This finding indicates that the EmoPlay
“They concentrated fully when watching the Pals App was effective in strengthening children's attentional control.
app animation and….” (T2)
“…Previously they often lost focus in class,
The app's interactive design, including contextual simulation, task
now they can persist until….” (T3) feedback, and simple point-and-click operation, helped guide children's
“During group work, they kept attention on focus and sustained their attention during the emotion regulation task.
the task instead of chatting.” (T3) The evidence supports earlier findings (Fan et al., 2024) that multisen­
“They stared at the screen carefully and Improved
sory features, such as visual and voice prompts, improve children's
followed the character's actions.” (T2) engagement
“…said the character was breathing and ability to process information and maintain attention. In line with
wanted to breathe together.” (T3) Gross's (2002) emotion regulation process model, we can predict that
“…the app provided voice prompts or directing attention is a central step towards emotion regulation. By
interactive questions, children showed engaging with the EmoPlay Pals App, children learned to shift their
higher engagement.” (T1)
“…, now they pause and wait.” (T1) Delay of Impulse
attention away from negative emotions and concentrate on constructive
“Children lined up and waited instead of gratification Control tasks. Daniel and Suleiman (2023) also found that interactive clicker
rushing.” (T2) tools encourage children to pause and monitor their focus, which leads
“…said, ‘Teacher, I will wait a moment.” to greater attention stability. Likewise, multisensory digital environ­
(T2)
ments have been shown to hold children's attention better than tradi­
“…imitated the waiting strategy shown in
the app characters.” (T4) tional picture books (Xiao & Lu, 2024), and furthermore, these skills can
“…calmed down by deep breathing instead Breathing and then be transferred into daily learning situations (Joines, 2023). In
of crying.” (T2) calming strategies addition, because the EmoPlay Pals App required children to follow clear
“…, a child said, ‘I will breathe first.’” (T1) steps to complete tasks, the structured approach promoted focus more
“They placed their hands on the stomach to do
deep breathing, ….” (T3)
effectively than casual reading activities (Sun, 2023).
“…the breathing method learned from the Additionally, children in the experimental group showed higher
animation was applied in class….” (T4) levels of impulse control than both the control group and compared with
“…, children quickly accepted and Acceptance of rule Adaptability their own pre-test. The EmoPlay Pals App's design played a key role in
continued playing，….” (T1) changes
helping children learn to manage their impulses, especially in tasks that
“In the past they cried when rules changed,
now they adapt smoothly，….” (T2) required waiting for the right moment to respond. Based on sociocul­
“In group activities, they accepted teachers' tural theory, children best develop self-control in guided environments
temporary adjustments.” (T2) providing step-by-step support (Mermelshtine, 2017). The EmoPlay Pals
“…，they were willing to try new game App applied this principle by introducing challenges in small steps, from
modes instead of sticking to the old ones.”
(T4)
short waiting times to more complex situations. Empirical evidence also
“Children tried different solutions instead Flexible problem- demonstrates that children's impulse control improves with regular
of giving up quickly.” (T3) solving practice (Joines, 2023); the app provided this through repeated click
“… they discussed different answers or operations and hand-eye coordination activities. The animated charac­
methods to find appropriate strategies.”
ters also gave children examples of how to manage emotions, allowing
(T1)
“… referred to app characters' strategies to them to observe and imitate positive behaviours (Richard et al., 2021;
solve problems.” (T3) Yue et al., 2024). For example, when facing fear, the children were
“They asked peers or teachers for help guided to try coping strategies instead of reacting quickly. Another
rather than quitting.” (T4) aspect of this teaching strategy was that classroom activities built
Note: T1 = Teacher 1, T2 = Teacher 2, T3 = Teacher 3, T4 = Teacher 4. around the app also required turn-taking and following rules, which
further strengthened impulse control (Chen et al., 2023; Dong et al.,
circumstances. The subthemes provide evidence that regulatory strate­ 2021; Raghunathan et al., 2023). Compared with irregular picture book
gies initially learned in digital environments were internalised and reading, the app provided steady and structured practice, making it
generalised to classroom settings, enhancing children's emotion easier for children to internalise strategies for managing impulses.
regulation. Similarly, the EmoPlay Pals App improved children's adaptive
emotion regulation strategies, including deep breathing, self-talk, and

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M. Yao and M.N.L.Y. Abdullah Acta Psychologica 263 (2026) 106205

positive thinking. This finding is consistent with Gross's (1998, 2002) to Gross's (2002) emotion regulation process model, attentional
process model, which explains that emotion regulation involves steps deployment is a crucial step in regulating emotions. In line with this
such as choosing situations, directing attention, rethinking events, and theory, the EmoPlay Pals App provided repeated opportunities for chil­
controlling expression. The app gave children the chance to learn and dren to redirect attention away from potential negative responses to­
apply these steps in realistic scenarios. For example, when faced with wards constructive activities. Additionally, the intervention also
tension, they practiced calming themselves, shifting attention, or significantly improved the ability of the children to manage impulsive
seeking help. This method of learning through situations has been found behaviours. This outcome reflects the app's design, which scaffolded
to be effective because young children rely heavily on context and direct children's learning by gradually introducing challenges requiring
experience (Wang et al., 2023). The App also provided real-time voice delayed responses. Sociocultural theory suggests that impulse control
feedback that guided children to apply the right strategy; a key factor in develops best when children receive structured support within the Zone
supporting them to build their confidence as well as inspiring repeated of Proximal Development (Mermelshtine, 2017). The EmoPlay Pals App
use of positive methods (Nicolaidou et al., 2021). In addition, group- operationalised this principle by embedding progressive waiting tasks,
based activities within the app invited children to share strategies and interactive rules, and animated role models, all of which promoted self-
learn from one another, promoting deeper understanding and wider use regulation through observation, imitation, and practice (Richard et al.,
of adaptive skills (Li & Disney, 2023). Unlike static picture book reading, 2021; Yue et al., 2024). Classroom activities reinforced these effects by
the app offered continuous opportunities for practice in different situ­ requiring turn-taking and adherence to task rules, confirming that sys­
ations, allowing children to apply what they had learned more flexibly. tematic and guided practice is more effective than unstructured learning
Correspondingly, the qualitative data from teacher interviews sup­ experiences (Chen et al., 2023; Dong et al., 2021; Raghunathan et al.,
ported these findings. Teachers reported that children in the experi­ 2023).
mental group showed better focus, stronger self-control, and greater The study further showed gains in adaptive emotion regulation
flexibility when facing classroom challenges. These classroom observa­ strategies, such as deep breathing, self-talk, and positive thinking. These
tions confirmed the statistical results, suggesting that the EmoPlay Pals strategies align with key components of Gross's (1998, 2002) model,
App produced real and observable changes in children's behaviour. including situation selection, attention redirection, cognitive reap­
Finally, even though the app intervention ended before the delayed post- praisal, and control of emotional expression. The EmoPlay Pals App
test, children's performance in all three areas continued to improve supported these processes by situating learning within realistic contexts
slightly. This suggests that children were able to take what they prac­ and providing real-time voice feedback that guided children towards
ticed in the app and use it independently in daily situations, indicating adaptive responses. Such structured practice enhanced the children's
that the apps may be a useful tool for both classrooms teaching and at- sense of efficacy and encouraged repeated use of positive strategies,
home learning. while peer-based interactions within the app further promoted shared
Under general picture book instruction, the control group showed learning and transfer of skills (Li & Disney, 2023; Nicolaidou et al.,
slight improvement on the post-test, but their performance declined on 2021; Wang et al., 2023). Importantly, qualitative feedback from
the delayed post-test. We argue that this phenomenon is primarily due to teachers reinforced these statistical results. Teachers observed that
three factors. First, traditional picture book instruction relies primarily children in the experimental group showed better focus, stronger self-
on storytelling and passive listening, lacking structured training and control, and greater flexibility when managing classroom demands.
repeated practice. While this can stimulate interest in the short term, it The delayed post-test results showed that children's emotion regulation
fails to achieve lasting results. Second, emotional skills learned from this skills continued to improve, despite the intervention having already
type of teaching with a picture book are difficult to transfer to tasks like ended. We can infer from this that the skills children learned with the
the PSRA, which require immediate response and self-regulation. The EmoPlay Pals App were carried over into their own behaviour and used
lack of multi-dimensional reinforcement leads to insufficient skill independently, rather than fading once the training ended. These results
retention. Finally, 4–5-year-old children are in a critical period of self- indicate that digital tools can have lasting benefits for children's
regulation development, a period of volatility that is easily influenced emotional development. Overall, the findings show that technology-
by classroom atmosphere, family environment, and emotional state. based interventions, when designed with interactive and multisensory
While the experimental group's systematic intervention was able to features, can effectively support emotion regulation in early childhood.
offset some of these fluctuations, the control group, lacking ongoing The EmoPlay Pals App illustrates how structured and context-rich ac­
support, was more likely to experience a decline on the delayed test due tivities can complement traditional approaches and be scaled for
to such external factors. This suggests that traditional picture book in­ broader use in preschool settings. By drawing on emotional intelligence
struction is limited in effectiveness in this area, and therefore sustained theory and Gross's model, this study is a real-life example of how theory
improvement in children's self-regulation is restricted. can be successfully applied into the design of a practical tool for pre­
school education.
6. Conclusion
6.1. Practical implications
The findings of this study provide strong evidence that the EmoPlay
Pals App enhanced preschool children's emotion regulation, as reflected This study provides a practical digital pathway for early intervention
in significant improvements in attention, impulse control, and adapt­ into working with children's emotion regulation skills, which has prac­
ability. These outcomes confirm that technology-supported, interactive tical implications for kindergarten education, family parenting styles,
learning environments can serve as effective tools for advancing young and the design of educational technology products. Kindergarten
children's emotional development. Children in the experimental group teachers can incorporate emotion regulation apps into their daily
demonstrated greater attentional control compared to their peers in the curricula to supplement social learning, helping children acquire spe­
control group and relative to their own baseline. This finding un­ cific regulation strategies in actual or simulated situations. Furthermore,
derscores the value of structured, interactive tasks in sustaining chil­ this study also provides parents with practical tools for emotional edu­
dren's focus. Features such as contextual simulation, real-time feedback, cation in the home environment. Through the EmoPlay Pals App's
and simple point-and-click navigation engaged children in ways that parent-child co-reading and co-playing functions, parents can identify
traditional picture book methods could not. This is consistent with prior emotions and explore regulation strategies with children, thus
empirical evidence pointing to the scope of multisensory environments strengthening the emotional connection among family members.
in enhancing children's processing capacity and attentional stability Considering that the preschool stage is a critical period for emotional
(Daniel & Suleiman, 2023; Fan et al., 2024; Xiao & Lu, 2024). According socialisation, the embedded intervention of digital tools provides new

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M. Yao and M.N.L.Y. Abdullah Acta Psychologica 263 (2026) 106205

resources for family education and builds a technical support bridge for relevant guidelines and regulations, including the Declaration of
family-school cooperation. For developers of educational technology Helsinki.
products, the design concept of ‘theory-driven + interactive experience’
revealed in this study provides theoretical support and a design para­ Funding information
digm for the subsequent development of preschool education apps.
No funding was received to conduct this study.
6.2. Research limitations and future directions
Declaration of competing interest
This study provides encouraging evidence for the effectiveness of the
EmoPlay Pals App in strengthening preschool children's emotion regu­ The authors declare no conflict of interest or personal relationships
lation, as well as addressing several gaps in the current literature. It that could have influenced the work reported in this paper.
extends prior research in its demonstration that digital interventions can
improve three key components of emotion regulation: attention, impulse Data availability
control, and adaptability, among preschoolers in China. The research
also presents the method in which emotional intelligence theory and doi:[Link]
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