Module: 3

Oscillators
• Barkhausen criterion for oscillation,
• Hartley and Colpitts oscillators,
• Phase shift, Wein bridge and Crystal oscillators,
• Clapp oscillator
Module: 3 -Oscillators
 Positive Feedback
 When input and feedback signal both are in same phase, It is
called a positive feedback.
 Positive feedback is used in analog and digital systems.
 A primary use of +ve feedback is in the production of
oscillators.

Module: 3 -Oscillators
Barkhausen Criterion
 The Barkhausen Criterion gives the necessary conditions
for sustained oscillations in an electronic oscillator.
 For an amplifier with feedback to produce continuous
(undamped) oscillations, the following two conditions
must be satisfied at the oscillation frequency:

Where:
•A= amplifier gain
•β = feedback factor
Module: 3 -Oscillators
Barkhausen Criterion
 Magnitude condition

 Phase condition

Module: 3 -Oscillators
 Oscillators
 Oscillator is an electronic circuit which converts dc signal
into ac signal.
 Oscillator is basically a positive feedback amplifier with
unity loop gain.
 For an inverting amplifier- feedback network provides a
phase shift of 180° while for non-inverting amplifier-
feedback network provides a phase shift of 0° to get
positive feedback .

Very high output with zero input

Use positive feedback through frequency-selective feedback network to ensure
sustained oscillation at 0
Module: 3 -Oscillators
Oscillators
 If the feedback signal is not positive and gain
is less than unity, oscillations dampen out.
 If the gain is higher than unity then
oscillation saturates.
Type of Oscillators
Oscillators can be categorized according to the types of feedback
network used:
1. RC Oscillators: Phase shift and Wien Bridge Oscillators
2. LC Oscillators: Colpitt and Hartley Oscillators
3. Crystal Oscillators

Oscillator How Barkhausen is satisfied

RC phase-shift 180° (amp) + 180° (RC)
RC-Wien bridge 0° phase shift + unity gain
Hartley LC tank gives 0°
Colpitts Module: 3Capacitive
-Oscillators divider feedback
RC Oscillators

Module: 3 -Oscillators
RC Oscillators: Phase shift Oscillator

Module: 3 -Oscillators
RC Oscillators: Phase shift Oscillator

Module: 3 -Oscillators
RC Oscillators: Phase shift Oscillator

Module: 3 -Oscillators
RC Oscillators: Wien Bridge Oscillator
 Feedback network is a lead-lag circuit where R1, C1 form
the lag portion and R2, C2 form the lead portion. Thus
feedback network provides 0o phase shift.

Module: 3 -Oscillators
RC Oscillators: Wien Bridge Oscillator

Module: 3 -Oscillators
RC Oscillators: Wien Bridge Oscillator

Module: 3 -Oscillators
RC Oscillators
Parameter RC Phase Shift Oscillator Wien Bridge Oscillator
RC network Three RC sections in cascade Lead–lag RC bridge network
180° from RC network + 180° 0° net phase shift at
Phase shift
from amplifier resonant frequency
Bridge (frequency-selective)
Feedback type Phase-shift feedback
feedback

Gain requirement High (≈ 29) Low (≈ 3)

Frequency stability Moderate Very good

Sinusoidal (with more Pure sinusoidal (low

Output waveform
distortion) distortion)
Frequency range Low / audio frequencies Audio frequencies
By changing R or C in RC Easy tuning by varying R or
Frequency control
sections C
Complexity Simple Slightly complex (uses AGC)
Function generators, audio
Applications Audio signal generators
oscillators
Module: 3 -Oscillators
RC Oscillators- Summary
 RC oscillators are sinusoidal oscillators that use R and C for
frequency determination.
 They are best suited for low-frequency applications (audio and
low RF range).
 Frequency Range- Typically 20 Hz to 1 MHz.
Aspect RC Oscillator
Frequency range Low (audio range)
Components used Resistors and capacitors
Circuit size Compact
Stability Good at low frequencies
High-frequency use Not suitable
Output power Low
Cost Low
Temperature Affected by temperature variations
Module: 3 -Oscillators
LC Oscillators
 LC oscillators use an inductor (L) and a capacitor (C) to
generate high-frequency AC signals.
 The circuit using elements L and C is called tank circuit or
oscillatory circuit.
 These are used for high frequency range from 00 kHz up to few
GHz.
 The LC tank circuit consists of elements L and C connected in
parallel.
 The oscillations occur due to the exchange of energy between
the electric field of the capacitor and the magnetic field of
the inductor.
 The capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field
and which produces a potential (static voltage) across its plates,
while the inductive coil stores its energy in the form of an
electromagnetic field.
Module: 3 -Oscillators
LC Oscillators

 The energy keeps oscillating between electric potential energy and

magnetic field energy.
 The capacitor is charged up to the DC supply voltage, V by putting the
switch in position 1. When the capacitor is fully charged the switch
changes to position 2.
 The charged capacitor is now connected in parallel across the inductive
coil so the capacitor begins to discharge itself through the coil.
 The voltage across C starts falling as the current through the coil
begins to rise. This rising current sets up an electromagnetic field
around the coil which resists this flow of current.
 When the capacitor, C is completely discharged the energy that was
originally stored in the capacitor, C as an electrostatic filed is now stored
in the inductive coil, L as an electromagnetic field around the coils
Module: 3 -Oscillators
windings.
LC Oscillators
 Now there is no external voltage in the circuit to maintain the current within
the coil, it starts to fall as the electromagnetic field begins to collapse.
 A back emf is induced in the coil (e=-Ldi/dt) keeping the current flowing in the
original direction.
 This current now charges up the capacitor, c with the opposite polarity to its
original charge.
 Capacitor continues to charge up until the current reduces to zero and the
electromagnetic field of the coil has collapsed completely.
 The capacitor now starts to discharge again back through the coil and the whole
process so repeated.
 The polarity of the voltage changes as the energy is passed back and forth
between the capacitor and inductor producing an AC type sinusoidal voltage and
current waveform.
 The frequency of oscillations generated by LC tank circuit is given by,

Module: 3 -Oscillators
LC Oscillators
 The frequency selection network(Z1, Z2
and Z3) provides a phase shift of
180o
 Output voltage is developed across
Z2 and feedback voltage is developed
across Z1.
 The amplifier provides additional
shift of 180o

• There are two common types:

1. Colpitts— The resonant circuit is an inductor and two

capacitors. (uses split capacitors)
2. Hartley— The resonant circuit is a tapped inductor or
two inductors and one capacitor.(uses tapped inductor)

Module: 3 -Oscillators
 LC Oscillators

 For the equivalent

circuit from the output

 Therefore, the amplifier

gain is obtained,

 The loop gain,

Module: 3 -Oscillators
LC Oscillators

Module: 3 -Oscillators
Colpitt Oscillator
 The resonant circuit is one L and
two C.
 BJT output is developed across
C1 and feedback voltage is
developed across C2 .
 Each capacitor causes 90o phase
shift hence total 180o phase shift.

Module: 3 -Oscillators
Colpitt Oscillator
 The loop gain,

Module: 3 -Oscillators
Hartley Oscillator
 The resonant circuit is a tapped inductor or two L and one C.

 The loop gain,

Module: 3 -Oscillators
Comparison of Hartley and Colpitts
Oscillators
Parameter Hartley Oscillator Colpitts Oscillator
Two inductors (or tapped One inductor + two
Tank circuit
inductor) + one capacitor capacitors
Inductive (from tapped Capacitive (from capacitor
Feedback element
inductor) divider)

Frequency of oscillation

Frequency stability Moderate Better than Hartley

Component variation More sensitive to inductor Less sensitive, mainly
effect changes depends on capacitors
Easy by varying Easy by varying
Tuning
inductance capacitance
Construction Simple Slightly more complex
High-frequency
Good Very good
performance
RF oscillators, radio RF transmitters,
Applications
receivers communication circuits
Module: 3 -Oscillators
Clapp Oscillator
 The Clapp oscillator is a modified Colpitts oscillator
designed to provide better frequency stability, especially at
high frequencies.

 It uses an LC tank circuit

with an additional capacitor
in series with the inductor.
 The additional capacitor C3
makes the Clapp oscillator
more stable than the Colpitts
oscillator by allowing
frequency variation without
affecting the feedback ratio.

Module: 3 -Oscillators
Clapp Oscillator
 The frequency of oscillation in the case of a Clapp oscillator is
given by

 The value of C3 is chosen to be smaller in comparison with

C1 and C2.
 This is because, at higher frequencies, the smaller the C3, the
larger will be the inductor, which eases the implementation as
well as reduces the influence of stray inductance. So, C is
approximately equal to C3.
 Thus the frequency can be approximated as

Module: 3 -Oscillators
Crystal Oscillators
 A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator that uses a
piezoelectric crystal (usually quartz) to generate a highly stable
and precise frequency.
 Piezoelectric crystals are those materials which start vibrating
under the application of ac voltage and vibration frequency is
equal to the applied voltage. This effect is known as
piezoelectric effect.
 In Crystal Oscillator, piezoelectric crystals is used in feedback
network in place of RC or LC circuit. Each crystal has a natural
frequency which is given by

Where K is a constant depends on the

thickness of the crystal (t)

Module: 3 -Oscillators
Crystal Oscillators
 Extremely thin crystal may break due to vibrations which puts
the limit to the frequency obtainable. Crystal oscillator can be
used in the frequency range of 25kHz to few hundred MHz.
 The frequency of CO changes by less than 0.1% due to
temperature or other changes.
 In electronic circuit, it is placed between two metal plates. The
arrangement then forms the capacitor with crystal as a dielectric
(electrostatic capacitor).
 A piezoelectric crystal exhibit electromechanical resonance
characteristics.
 The resonance properties are characterized by large inductance L, a
very small series capacitance C, and small series resistance R to
make Q factor very high

Piezoelectric crystals act like

resonant circuits.
Module: 3 -Oscillators
Crystal Oscillators
 Since the Q factor is very high, we may neglect R.

Module: 3 -Oscillators
Crystal Oscillators

Module: 3 -Oscillators
Crystal Oscillators
 Frequency Stability

 Amplitude Stability

Module: 3 -Oscillators