UNIT-5

Essential o f computer
Chapter 1:

[Link] evolution of computer .

Ans : Evolution of computer:

Introduction:
A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information or data. It can store, retrieve,
and process data.

Nowadays, a computer can be used to type documents, send an email, play games, and browse
the Web. It can also be used to edit or create spreadsheets, presentations, and even videos. But
the evolution of this complex system started around 1940 with the First Generation of
computers and evolving ever since.
Computers have evolved significantly over the years, and the history of computers is often
divided into generations based on the technology used. Here are the five generations of
computers:
COMPUTER GENERATIONS

Generations are:

1. First Generation Computer (1940-1956)

2. Second Generation Computer (1956-1963)
3. Third Generation Computer(1964-1971)
4. Fourth Generation Computer(1971-Present)
5. Fifth Generation Computer(Present and Beyond)

First Generation Computer :

The first generation of computers is characterized by the use of “Vacuum tubes” and it was
developed in 1904 by the British engineer “John Ambrose Fleming”. A vacuum tube is an
electronic device that is used to control the flow of electric current in a vacuum. It is used in
CRT(Cathode Ray Tube) Tv, Radio, etc.
Vacuum Tubes
he first general-purpose programmable electronic computer was the ENIAC (Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Computer), built by”J Presper Eckert and John V Mauchly at the
University of Pennsylvania. The ENIAC was 30-50 feet long, 30 tons weighted, contained 18000
vacuum tubes, 70000 registers, and 10000 capacitors, and it required 150000 watts of electricity,
which makes it very expensive

Examples are ENIAC(Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer),

EDVAC(Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer),
UNIVAC-1(Univeral Automatic Computer-1)

ADVANTAGES

 These computers were designed by using vacuum tubes.

 These generations’ computers were simple architecture.
 These computers calculate data in a millisecond.
 This computer is used for scientific purposes.
DISADVANTAGES

 The computer was very costly.

 Very large in size.
 It takes up a lot of space and electricity
 The speed of these computers was very slow
 It is used for commercial purposes.
 It is very expensive.
 These computers heat a lot.
 Cooling is needed to operate these computers because it heats up very quickly.
2. SECOND GENERATION COMPUTER: Transistors (1956-1963)

The second generation of computers is characterized by the use of “transistors” and it was
developed in 1947 by three American physicists “John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and
William Shockley”.
 Transistors

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals or opens or

close a circuit. It is invented in bell labs, The transistors become the key ingredient of all digital
circuits, including computers.

ransistors are made of semiconducting materials and they controlled the flow of electricity.

It is smaller than the first generation of computers, it is faster and less expensive related to the
first generation of computers. The second-generation computer has a high level of programming
languages, including FORTRAN (1956), ALGOL(1958), and COBOL(1959).

Examples are PDP-8(Programmed Data Processor-8),

IBM1400(International business machine 1400 series),
IBM 7090(International business machine 7090 series),
CDC 3600( Control Data Corporation 3600 series)

ADVANTAGES:

 It is smaller in size as compared to the first-generation computer

 It used a less electricity
 Not heated as much as the first-generation computer.
 It has better speed
DISADVANTAGES:

 It is also costly and not versatile

 still, it is expensive for commercial purposes
 Cooling is still needed
 Punch cards were used for input
 The computer is used for the particular purpose
3. THIRD GENERATION COMPUTER:

Integrated Circuits (1964-1971)

The third generation of computers is characterized by the use of “Integrated Circuits” it was
developed in 1958 by “Jack Kilby”. The integrated circuit is a set of electronic circuits on small
flat pieces of semiconductor that is normally known as silicon. The transistors were miniaturized
and placed on silicon chips which are called semiconductors, which drastically increased the
efficiency and speed of the computers.
 Integrated Circuit
These ICs (integrated circuits) are popularly known as chips. A single IC, has many transistors,
resistors, and capacitors built on a single slice of silicon.

This development made computers smaller in size, low cost, large memory, and processing. The
speed of these computers is very high and it is efficient and reliable also.

These generations of computers have a higher level of languages such as Pascal PL/1, FORTON-
II to V, COBOL, ALGOL-68, and BASIC(Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)
was developed during these periods.

Examples are NCR 395(National Cash Register),

IBM 360,370 series,
B6500

ADVANTAGES:

These computers are smaller in size as compared to previous generations

 It consumed less energy and was more reliable
 More Versatile
 It produced less heat as compared to previous generations
 These computers are used for commercial and as well as general-purpose
 These computers used a fan for head discharge to prevent damage
 This generation of computers has increased the storage capacity of computers
DISADVANTAGES:

 Still, a cooling system is needed.

 It is still very costly
 Sophisticated Technology is required to manufacture Integrated Circuits
 It is not easy to maintain the IC chips.
 The performance of these computers is degraded if we execute large applications.
4. FOURTH GENERATION OF COMPUTER: Microprocessor (1971-Present)

The fourth generation of computers is characterized by the use of “Microprocessor”. It was

invented in the 1970s and It is developed by four inventors named are “Marcian Hoff,
Masatoshi Shima, Federico Faggin, and Stanley major”. The first microprocessor named was
the “Intel 4004” CPU, it was the first microprocessor that was invented.

Intel 4004(MicroProcessor)

A microprocessor contains all the circuits required to perform arithmetic, logic, and control
functions on a single chip. Because of microprocessors, fourth-generation includes more data
processing capacity than equivalent-sized third-generation computers. Due to the development of
microprocessors, it is possible to place the CPU(central processing unit) on a single chip. These
computers are also known as microcomputers. The personal computer is a fourth-generation
computer. It is the period when the evolution of computer networks takes place.

Examples are APPLE II,

Alter 8800

ADVANTAGES:

 These computers are smaller in size and much more reliable as compared to other
generations of computers.

 The heating issue on these computers is almost negligible

 No A/C or Air conditioner is required in a fourth-generation computer.
 In these computers, all types of higher languages can be used in this generation
 It is totally also for the general-purpose
 less expensive
 These computers are cheaper and also portable
DISADVANTAGES:

 Fans are required to operate these kinds of computers

 It required the latest technology for the need of making microprocessors and complex
software
  These computers were highly sophisticated
 It also required advanced technology to make the ICs(Integrated circuits)
5. FIFTH GENERATION OF COMPUTERS (Present and beyond)

These generations of computers were based on AI(Artificial Intelligence) technology. Artificial

technology is the branch of computer science concerned with making computers behave like
humans and allowing the computer to take its own decision currently, no computers exhibit full
artificial intelligence (that is, are able to simulate human behavior).

In the fifth generation of computers, VLSI technology and ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration)
technology are used and the speed of these computers is extremely high. This generation
introduced machines with hundreds of processors that could all be working on different parts of a
single program. The development of a more powerful computer is still in progress. It has been
predicted that such a computer will be able to communicate in natural spoken languages with its
user.

In this generation, computers are also required to use a high level of languages like C language,
c++, java, etc.

Examples are Desktop computers, laptops, notebooks, MacBooks, etc. These all are the
computer which we are using it.

ADVANTAGES:

These computers are smaller in size and it is more compatible

 These computers are very powerful and cheaper in cost

 It is obviously used for the general purpose
 Higher technology is used
 Development of true artificial intelligence
 Advancement in Parallel Processing and superconductor technology.
DISADVANTAGES:

 It tends to be sophisticated and complex tools

 It pushes the limit of transistor density.
 Chapter 2:

Internet and its components

Q) Define Internet. Explain about history of internet.

Internet definition:

The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers and networks. The World Wide
Web is a service that uses the Internet's infrastructure to provide digital devices and applications
with access to websites. Popular internet services include email, VoIP (Voice over IP), and SMS
(Short Message Service).

History of the Internet

During the 1960s cold war, the United States Department of Defense’s Advanced Research
Projects Agency (ARPA) was tasked with creating a robust, reliable communication network that
would be capable of withstanding a nuclear attack. This new communication network needed to
be decentralized to prevent a single point of failure (SPoF) and redundancy so information could
be rerouted in real time if network operations were disrupted.

The first network prototype was called the ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network). It was one network that connected four major universities and research institutions.
Historically, it is important because the researchers used packet-switching to transmit data across
the network in small, manageable units.

In 1974, researchers Vint Cerf and Robert Kahn introduced the idea of an Internet Protocol Suite,
commonly known as TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). The two
protocols provide a framework for computers to send and receive data over disparate,
interconnected networks.

As the concept of internetworking gained momentum in the 1980s, the National Science
Foundation established the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET). The NSFNET
became a backbone for the internet and essentially created a “network of networks” that
expanded network access beyond the Department of Defense’s earlier ARPANET.

It wasn’t until 1989, however, when British computer scientist Sir Tim Berners-Lee proposed the
idea of interconnecting digital content as well as networks that people began to appreciate the
potential of the internet. In his proposal, Berners-Lee outlined the concept of hypertext and a
new markup language to create an information-sharing system.

This system used HyperText Markup Language (HTML) to create the web pages
and HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) to transmit the data. The web, which sits on top of the
internet and uses its infrastructure, opened up the potential of the internet for more everyday uses
by making it easier to share and access information across networks.

The release of Mosaic, the first browser, marked another significant milestone in the
popularization of the World Wide Web. Its graphical user interface (GUI), support for images,
and intuitive navigation played a crucial role in making the Internet more accessible and visually
engaging for early adopters.

By the end of the 1990s, commercial Internet Service Providers (ISPs) began to offer dial-up
connections to homes and businesses – and America Online (AOL) introduced millions of new
users to the Internet. AOL’s marketing efforts, user-friendly interface, and bundled email, instant
messaging, and web browsing services appealed to the general public and fostered the growth of
e-commerce.

The turn of the 21st century brought a new chapter in internet history with the proliferation of
mobile devices. The rise of smartphones and tablets unleashed unprecedented connectivity and
allowed people around the world to access the internet from anywhere with an internet
connection. Mobile applications, social media platforms, and streaming devices transformed the
way people consumed information, shared content, communicated, did their jobs, and shopped.

By the second decade of the century, the Internet of Things (IoT) allowed everyday objects to be
networked. Today, technologies such as blockchain and artificial intelligence (AI) have the
potential to improve the Internet’s infrastructure and services. Improvements in LEO satellite
internet will enable connectivity for sensors and smart devices in rural areas and open up new
possibilities for precision agriculture and environmental monitoring in even the most remote
regions of the world.

Advancements in AI and machine learning (ML) technologies will improve cybersecurity threat
detection and remediation on the Internet – and improvements in encryption algorithms and
new Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocols will provide more robust protection
against eavesdropping and other types of unauthorized packet interception.

Decade Key Internet Development

Development of internetwork communication protocols by the Defense Advanced
1960s
Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in the US.
1970s TCP/IP becomes the standard protocol for routing packets within and across networks.
1980s The term “Internet” is used to describe interconnected networks.
1990s HTML transforms the concept of the World Wide Web into a reality.
2000s User-generated content and mobile devices revolutionize how people access and interact
 with the Web.
High-speed broadband internet enables the transformation of cloud computing into a
2010s
business strategy.
Covid-19 restrictions highlight the importance of treating the Internet as a utility by
2020s
facilitating the shift to remote work, online learning, and virtual events.

Q) What is ISP?

An internet service provider (ISP) is a company that provides access to the internet. ISPs can
provide this access through multiple means, including dial-up, DSL, cable, wireless and fiber-
optic connections.

A variety of companies serve as ISPs, including cable providers, mobile carriers, and telephone
companies. In some cases, a single company may offer multiple types of service (e.g., cable and
wireless), while in other cases, a company may focus on just one type of service (e.g., fiber-
optic). Without an ISP, individuals and businesses could not reach the internet and the
opportunities it provides.
Typical services offered by ISPs

Internet access is the primary service offered by ISPs, but there are a variety of other services
they may provide. These can include:

 Equipment rental: Many ISPs will rent equipment like modems and routers to their
customers. This can be a convenient option for those who do not want to purchase their
own equipment or do not need the latest and greatest technology.
 Tech support: Many ISPs offer tech support to their customers. This can be a valuable
service for those unfamiliar with setting up or troubleshooting internet connections.
 Email access: Some ISPs offer email services to their customers. This can be a
convenient way to have an email address linked to your ISP account.
 Tiered connection plans: ISPs typically offer different tiers of service, with different
speeds and data allowances. This is a good option for those who want to pay for a higher-
speed connection or who need more data than what is included in the basic package.

As a leading provider of internet service, Verizon offers a variety of services to consumers,

including:

 Fios Internet: Fios Internet is a 100% fiber-optic network that delivers some of the
fastest internet speeds to millions of homes in the mid-Atlantic and New England.
 5G Home Internet: 5G Home Internet is a wireless home internet service utilizing 5G
Ultra Wideband technology that provides the network performance and speed you want
to stream, game or work flexibly.
 LTE Home Internet: Verizon LTE Home is a wireless internet service that offers
download speeds of 25-50 Mbps, with typical upload speeds of 4 Mbps.
It's important to note that there is a difference between Mbps and Kbps. Mbps stands for
megabits per second, while Kbps stands for kilobits per second — one megabit is the equivalent
of 1,000 kilobits.
Evolution of internet service providers

Internet service providers have come a long way since their early days of offering dial-up
internet service. In the past, dial-up was the only option for those who wanted to access the
internet. This meant that users had to connect their computer to a phone line and use a modem to
connect to the internet. The speeds were slow (usually around 56 kbps), and the connection was
often unreliable.

As technology progressed, ISPs began offering higher-speed connections using DSL or cable.
These connections were much faster than dial-up (usually around 1 Mbps), but they were still
slower than what is available today.

Now, ISPs are offering high-speed fiber-optic connections and unlimited data plans. As
technology progresses, we are beginning to see new services like high-speed 5G home internet
becoming much more widely available.
Why do I need an ISP?

An ISP is required in order to connect to the internet via a modem in your home or business.
Without an ISP, you would not be able to access the wealth of information available online. An
ISP can provide you with a fast and reliable connection.

That said, there’s some leeway for those who are interested in using a mobile data plan and
hotspot to connect to the internet, instead of paying for a plan from an ISP that doesn’t offer
mobile connectivity. With a mobile data plan, you pay for a certain number of gigabytes per
month, and you’re able to share data and get internet on multiple devices via hotspot.

A mobile data plan can give you fast, reliable internet —although a data cap may be an issue
with some plans. If you're considering a prepaid mobile plan but are worried that you might need
more data than it offers, many ISPs offer unlimited data plan options.

Q) What are the diffrentTypes of Computer Networks?

 A computer network is a cluster of computers over a shared communication path that works
to share resources from one computer to another, provided by or located on the network nodes.
Uses of Computer Networks
 Communicating using email, video, instant messaging, etc.
 Sharing devices such as printers, scanners, etc.
 Sharing files.
 Sharing software and operating programs on remote systems.
 Allowing network users to easily access and maintain information.

Types of Computer Networks

There are mainly five types of Computer Networks
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

Types of Computer Networks

. Personal Area Network (PAN)

PAN is the most basic type of computer network. This network is restrained to a single person,
that is, communication between the computer devices is centered only on an individual’s
workspace. PAN offers a network range of 1 to 100 meters from person to device providing
communication. Its transmission speed is very high with very easy maintenance and very low
cost.
This uses Bluetooth, IrDA, and Zigbee as technology.
Examples of PAN are USB, computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA, etc.

Personal Area Network (PAN)

2. Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN is the most frequently used network. A LAN is a computer network that connects
computers through a common communication path, contained within a limited area, that is,
locally. A LAN encompasses two or more computers connected over a server. The two
important technologies involved in this network are Ethernet and Wi-fi. It ranges up to 2km &
transmission speed is very high with easy maintenance and low cost.
Examples of LAN are networking in a home, school, library, laboratory, college, office, etc.

Local Area Network (LAN)

3. Campus Area Network (CAN)

CAN is bigger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN. This is a type of computer network that is
usually used in places like a school or colleges. This network covers a limited geographical
area that is, it spreads across several buildings within the campus. CAN mainly use Ethernet
technology with a range from 1km to 5km.
Its transmission speed is very high with a moderate maintenance cost and moderate cost.
Examples of CAN are networks that cover schools, colleges, buildings, etc.
 Campus Area Network (CAN)

4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of computer network
that connects computers over a geographical distance through a shared communication path
over a city, town, or metropolitan area. This network mainly uses FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as
the technology with a range from 5km to 50km. Its transmission speed is average. It is difficult
to maintain and it comes with a high cost.

Examples of MAN are networking in towns, cities, a single large city, a large area within
multiple buildings, etc.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

5. Wide Area Network (WAN)
WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large geographical
distance through a shared communication path. It is not restrained to a single location but
extends over many locations. WAN can also be defined as a group of local area networks that
communicate with each other with a range above 50km.
Here we use Leased-Line & Dial-up technology. Its transmission speed is very low and it
comes with very high maintenance and very high cost.
The most common example of WAN is the Internet.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Comparison between Different Computer Networks

Parameters PAN LAN CAN MAN WAN

Personal Campus
Local Area Metropolitan Wide Area
Full Name Area Area
Network Area Network Network
Network Network

Bluetooth, FDDI, CDDi. Leased Line,

Technology Ethernet & Wifi Ethernet
IrDA,Zigbee ATM Dial-Up

Range 1-100 m Upto 2km 1 – 5 km 5-50 km Above 50 km

 Parameters PAN LAN CAN MAN WAN

Transmission
Very High Very High High Average Low
Speed

Private or Private or
Ownership Private Private Private
Public Public

Maintenance Very Easy Easy Moderate Difficult Very Difficult

Cost Very Low Low Moderate High Very High

Other Types of Computer Networks

1. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
2. Storage Area Network (SAN)
3. System-Area Network (SAN)
4. Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)
5. Enterprise Private Network (EPN)
6. Virtual Private Network (VPN)
7. Home Area Network (HAN)

1. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

WLAN is a type of computer network that acts as a local area network but makes use of
wireless network technology like Wi-Fi. This network doesn’t allow devices to communicate
over physical cables like in LAN but allows devices to communicate wirelessly.
The most common example of WLAN is Wi-Fi.
 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

There are several computer networks available; more information is provided below.
2. Storage Area Network (SAN)
SAN is a type of computer network that is high-speed and connects groups of storage devices
to several servers. This network does not depend on LAN or WAN. Instead, a SAN moves the
storage resources from the network to its high-powered network. A SAN provides access to
block-level data storage.
Examples of SAN are a network of disks accessed by a network of servers.
 Storage Area Network (SAN)

3. System Area Network (SAN)

A SAN is a type of computer network that connects a cluster of high-performance computers.
It is a connection-oriented and high-bandwidth network. A SAN is a type of LAN that handles
high amounts of information in large requests. This network is useful for processing
applications that require high network performance.
Microsoft SQL Server 2005 uses SAN through a virtual interface adapter.

System Area Network (SAN)

4. Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)

A POLAN is a type of computer network that is an alternative to a LAN. POLAN uses optical
splitters to split an optical signal from a single strand of single-mode optical fiber to multiple
signals to distribute users and devices. In short, POLAN is a point to multipoint LAN
architecture.
 Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)

5. Enterprise Private Network (EPN)

EPN is a type of computer network mostly used by businesses that want a secure connection
over various locations to share computer resources.

Enterprise Private Network (EPN)

6. Virtual Private Network (VPN)

A VPN is a type of computer network that extends a private network across the internet and
lets the user send and receive data as if they were connected to a private network even though
they are not. Through a virtual point-to-point connection users can access a private network
remotely. VPN protects you from malicious sources by operating as a medium that gives you a
protected network connection.
 Virtual Private Network (VPN)

7. Home Area Network (HAN)

Many of the houses might have more than a computer. To interconnect those computers and
with other peripheral devices, a network should be established similar to the local area network
(LAN) within that home. Such a type of network that allows a user to interconnect multiple
computers and other digital devices within the home is referred to as Home Area Network
(HAN). HAN encourages sharing of resources, files, and programs within the network. It
supports both wired and wireless communication.

Home Area Network (HAN)

Advantages of Computer Network
Some of the main advantages of Computer Networks are:
 Central Storage of Data: Files are stored on a central storage database which helps to
easily access and available to everyone.
 Connectivity: A single connection can be routed to connect multiple computing devices.
 Sharing of Files: Files and data can be easily shared among multiple devices which helps
in easily communicating among the organization.
 Security through Authorization: Computer Networking provides additional security and
protection of information in the system.
Disadvantages of Computer Network
Some of the main disadvantages of Computer Networks are:
 Virus and Malware: A virus is a program that can infect other programs by modifying
them. Viruses and Malware can corrupt the whole network.
 High Cost of Setup: The initial setup of Computer Networking is expensive because it
consists of a lot of wires and cables along with the device.
 loss of Information: In case of a System Failure, might lead to some loss of data.
 Management of Network: Management of a Network is somehow complex for a person, it
requires training for its proper use.

Q) what is domain name system in computer

network?

What is DNS

DNS stands for “Domain Name System” which is used to convert the
domain name into its corresponding address, It is known as “DNS”. It is
basically like a phonebook where all the phone numbers are recorded in it,
Exactly the same as DNS provides a book where all the domain’s IP
addresses are recorded in it and attached those IPs to its specific domain
like: [Link], [Link], [Link], [Link], etc.
well these domains are just a name so that people can easily learn it while
surfing the internet.

Example: Suppose there is a website name: [Link] and

its corresponding IP is 198.102. 430.1. To connect this IP to this domain
[Link], DNS is used to convert it and attach it and make
a record in the server.
How Does DNS Works?

While surfing a browser to get information from any website like you are
getting information from our site, So when you enter our domain name into
the search bar in the web browser that time you sent the request to the
DNS server, and Now the DNS server takes your request and checks IP’s
address on a DNS record. If the DNS server finds out the record then it will
be sent to your browser so that you can able to access the website. So
that’s the process of “How DNS works”.

Looks like the process is time-consuming, but no the process is done by

the machine. As we all know how fast machines are

Ex:

Ex

Ex:
As you can see in the diagram a girl sends a request of
[Link] to the browser then:

 Step 1: It sends to the DNS Server

 Step 2: Then the web server checks the matching IP address in the
record, when it finds outs then it sends it to the browser.
 Step 3: Now the browser sends those IP addresses to the Web
server there web server provides the output to the screen.
 Step 4: As you can see web server sends a file to the web browser.

Types of Domain Names

If I talk about domains, there are so many types of domains available with
the specific extension:

 .com
 .in
 .org
 .gov
 .net
 .edu
 and much more…
Q) What are the uses of Internet?
Ans) TOP 10 USES OF THE INTERNET:

Online Booking & Orders

The Internet has made it a lot easier for people to book tickets for buses, trains, flights (domestic
and international) directly using their devices from anywhere.

People can also book a taxi by choosing their current location, and they will be picked up or
dropped at a specified location.

Now no one needs to wait in long queues for their turn to book tickets at the ticket counter.
Cashless Transactions

Most countries are promoting cashless transactions and digital payments.

This helps people not carry much cash.

People can pay their bills through debit or credit cards using POS devices.

These devices are connected to the payment gateway on the Internet.

People can also use their smartphone and the Internet for processing transactions on UPI
(Unified Payment Interface).

It does not even require them to carry their cards. The UPI payment method is continuously
evolving and is expected to cover most transactions in the near future.

Education

People can study the relevant topic just by spending a couple of minutes over the Internet.
Internet Search engines help people quickly find the relevant study material in multiple formats
(such as images, videos, documents, etc.). This helps eliminate the need to go to the library to
read several books to find the desired information.

Besides, the Internet has also enabled students to participate in their classes through video
conferencing, where students can connect with their teachers or professionals anywhere in the
world.

Online Banking & Trading

The way of banking has changed after the introduction of the Internet.

The Internet has made banking online where people can manage their bank accounts while
sitting at home or traveling abroad.

Nowadays, most of the features of banking are right in people's hands.

With the help of online banking, people can securely transfer the money from one account to
another, change their ATM pins, apply for the physical or virtual credit cards, update credit card
limits, enable or disable international transactions, track their transactions, and many more.

Research

The Internet is playing a significant role in the field of research.

Before the use of the Internet, it was quite hard to look for information about anything.

People had to go through hundreds of books for references to find the desired information.
However, the Internet has made it a lot easier, and anyone can find the required information at
some clicks only.

In research, people can study about the success and failed research and work further for the
improvements. Uses of the Internet in research have incredibly beneficial for the researchers.

Electronic Mail

Email or electronic mail is one of the first significant uses of the Internet. The email has enabled
faster communication between people on the Internet.

Using email, people can quickly share information, data files, such as images, audio, video, and
other types of files.

The use of email has significantly reduced paper use, which was the primary source of
communication in the olden days. Anyone can have a free email address and can easily
communicate with others. This has also reduced the load on the physical mail system, although it
is still in use.

Job Search

Getting a job is a lot easier than before.

Any person can view relevant job information using the Internet.

Earlier, people had to go through each company individually to know if a position was vacant or
not.

However, the Internet has enabled people to find employment sitting at home to suit their
interests. Many websites provide details about job availability.

Once people submit their resumes, these websites keep informing about vacancies through email.

Besides, each well-known company has its website, where the company posts about the vacancy
opening.

So, just sitting at home, people can search, apply for jobs and even give their interviews and see
or know their results.

Social Networking

Social networking sites have connected people around the world. Social networking is an
essential part of the Internet.

With the help of the Internet, people have got the ability to form social groups where they can
share information, thoughts and ideas about anything. The social networking platform is the
largest source of content, covering everything from informative content to entertainment.

The best thing is that people don't have to pay anything to use these services. This helps
businesses develop their community and promote their products.
Collaboration

Due to the Internet, communication has become easier and better. You can easily connect with
anyone on the Internet, either texting, calling or video calling.

It has created new cooperation opportunities for the people. There are several online chat
software and websites that help people create group discussions or meetings.

It helps businesses to have a hassle-free discussion. Therefore, people do not always need to
travel long distances to attend meetings.

This helps people avoid unnecessary travel and save time for productive use.

Besides, there are many cloud-based software and websites that offer people to work on the same
project simultaneously at the same time. People from different places can easily connect and
support their specialties using the Internet.

Entertainment

The Internet is the most effective means of entertainment. There are various options available on
the Internet, which people can try, such as watching movies, playing online games, listening to
songs, etc. The Internet has also made it easy for people to download entertainment items to their
local storage. Using the Internet, people can also share their videos, songs, pictures online with
others. Also, nowadays, people can watch live TV or sports on the Internet.

E-Commerce

The Internet is not just limited to ordering things; it can also be used to sell products.

Many e-commerce websites allow businesses and individuals to sell their products.

Products are purchased by these e-commerce companies, stored in their warehouses, packaged in
their brand packaging, and distributed by themselves.

E-commerce companies charge some commission to distribute goods to customers. Also, they
offer great discounts and offers to customers. The best thing is that customers do not have to go
to physical stores.

Besides, sellers can also create their website and list their products there.

They can refer to all information about the product, answer customer questions and provide
online payment options to their customers. All these things are possible on the Internet.

File Transfer

The Internet has made file transfer between systems or devices easier. With FTP (File Transfer
Protocol), data can be securely exchanged over the Internet. FTP is mainly beneficial when large
files need to be transferred because email allows sharing files with limited size. FTP is the best
way to exchange information between two stakeholders. This method is still quite popular and in
use.
Navigation

The navigation mechanism is one of the most beneficial uses of the Internet. Once a user put the
location in the online maps (such as Google maps), it provides all the details about that location.
Users can even find the best route to visit that particular location. The map also provides the
distance between the locations. The best thing about navigation is that it will provide the shortest
possible route with less traffic. One can also search for any specific place like the nearest hotel,
restaurants, banks, ATM, etc. Apart from this, a person can share a live location with others
using the Internet and the navigation technique.

Advertising

Because most people use the Internet, it is the best means of promoting something or advertising.
There are options for paid promotion as well as free promotion. There are many advertising
platforms on the Internet that help promote products or businesses online. These platforms
advertise products on other related websites using banners, videos, email etc. They charge for
these advertisements according to distance, keywords and audience etc. However, one can also
use social media platforms to create online groups or communities and advertise freely.

Real-time updates

The Internet is helping people to keep up with what is happening around the world.

Many news and information websites provide real-time updates on various categories, such as
politics, history, news, geology, leisure, sports, technology, marketing, and more.

CHAPTER-3

NETWORK AND SECURITY CONCEPTS

What is Information Assurance (IA)?

Information Assurance (IA) is the practice of managing information-related risks and the steps
involved to protect information systems such as computer and network systems.

The US Government's definition of information assurance is:

“measures that protect and defend information and information systems by ensuring their
availability, integrity, authentication, confidentiality, and non-repudiation. These measures
include providing for restoration of information systems by incorporating protection, detection,
and reaction capabilities.”
The 5 pillars of Information Assurance
Information Assurance (IA) is essentially protecting information systems, and is often associated
with the following five pillars:

1. Integrity
2. Availability
3. Authentication
4. Confidentiality
5. Nonrepudiation

The five pillars of information assurance can be applied various ways, depending on the
sensitivity of your organization’s information or information systems. Currently, these five
pillars are used at the heart of the US Government’s ability to conduct safe and secure
operations in a global environment.

1. Integrity
Integrity involves assurance that all information systems are protected and not tampered with. IA
aims to maintain integrity through anti-virus software on all computer systems and ensuring all
staff with access know how to appropriately use their systems to minimize malware, or viruses
entering information systems.

IT Governance provides a variety of E-learning courses to improve staff awareness on topics

such as phishing and ransomware to reduce the likelihood of systems being breached; and data
being exposed.

2. Availability
Availability means those who need access to information, are allowed to access it. Information
should be available to only those who are aware of the risks associated with information
systems.

3. Authentication
Authentication involves ensuring those who have access to information are who they say they
are. Ways of improving authentication include methods such as two-factor authentication, strong
passwords, biometrics, and other devices. Authentication may also be used to itentify not only
users, but also other devices.

4. Confidentiality
IA involves the confidentiality of information, meaning only those with authorization may view
certain data. This step is closely mirrored by the six data processing principles of the General
Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), whereby personal data must be processed in a secure
manner "using appropriate technical and oganizational measures" ("integrity and
confidentiality").

5. Nonrepudiation
The final pillar means someone with access to your organization’s information system cannot
deny having completed an action within the system, as there should be methods in place to prove
that they did make said action.

Chapter -4

Pravace and techniques of data protection

q) What is Malware & How to Stay Protected from Malware Attacks

.Ans) Malware Definition

Malware (short for “malicious software”) is a file or code, typically delivered over a network,

that infects, explores, steals or conducts virtually any behavior an attacker wants. And because

malware comes in so many variants, there are numerous methods to infect computer systems.

Though varied in type and capabilities, malware usually has one of the following objectives:

 Provide remote control for an attacker to use an infected machine.

 Send spam from the infected machine to unsuspecting targets.

 Investigate the infected user’s local network.

 Steal sensitive data.

Types of Malware:

Malware is an inclusive term for all types of malicious software. Malware examples, malware

attack definitions and methods for spreading malware include:

Adware – While some forms of adware may be considered legitimate, others make unauthorized

access to computer systems and greatly disrupt users.

Botnets – Short for “robot network,” these are networks of infected computers under the control

of single attacking parties using command-and-control servers. Botnets are highly versatile and

adaptable, able to maintain resilience through redundant servers and by using infected computers

to relay traffic. Botnets are often the armies behind today's distributed denial-of-service (DDoS)

attacks.

Cryptojacking – is malicious cryptomining (the process of using computing power to verify

transactions on a blockchain network and earning cryptocurrency for providing that service) that

happens when cybercriminals hack into both business and personal computers, laptops, and

mobile devices to install software.

Malvertising – Malvertising is a portmanteau of “malware + advertising” describing the practice

of online advertising to spread malware. It typically involves injecting malicious code or

malware-laden advertisements into legitimate online advertising networks and webpages.

Polymorphic malware – Any of the above types of malware with the capacity to “morph”

regularly, altering the appearance of the code while retaining the algorithm within. The alteration

of the surface appearance of the software subverts detection via traditional virus signatures.
Ransomware – Is a criminal business model that uses malicious software to hold valuable files,

data or information for ransom. Victims of a ransomware attack may have their operations

severely degraded or shut down entirely.

Remote Administration Tools (RATs) – Software that allows a remote operator to control a

system. These tools were originally built for legitimate use, but are now used by threat actors.

RATs enable administrative control, allowing an attacker to do almost anything on an infected

computer. They are difficult to detect, as they don’t typically show up in lists of running

programs or tasks, and their actions are often mistaken for the actions of legitimate programs.

Rootkits – Programs that provide privileged (root-level) access to a computer. Rootkits vary and

hide themselves in the operating system.

Spyware – Malware that collects information about the usage of the infected computer and

communicates it back to the attacker. The term includes botnets, adware, backdoor behavior,

keyloggers, data theft and net-worms.

Trojans Malware – Malware disguised in what appears to be legitimate software. Once activated,

malware Trojans will conduct whatever action they have been programmed to carry out. Unlike

viruses and worms, Trojans do not replicate or reproduce through infection. “Trojan” alludes to

the mythological story of Greek soldiers hidden inside a wooden horse that was given to the

enemy city of Troy.

Virus Malware – Programs that copy themselves throughout a computer or network. Malware

viruses piggyback on existing programs and can only be activated when a user opens the

program. At their worst, viruses can corrupt or delete data, use the user’s email to spread, or

erase everything on a hard disk.

Worm Malware – Self-replicating viruses that exploit security vulnerabilities to automatically

spread themselves across computers and networks. Unlike many viruses, malware worms do not

attach to existing programs or alter files. They typically go unnoticed until replication reaches a

scale that consumes significant system resources or network bandwidth.

Types of Malware Attacks

Malware also uses a variety of methods to spread itself to other computer systems beyond an

initial attack vector. Malware attack definitions can include:

 Email attachments containing malicious code can be opened, and therefore executed by

unsuspecting users. If those emails are forwarded, the malware can spread even deeper into an

organization, further compromising a network.

 File servers, such as those based on common Internet file system (SMB/CIFS) and network file

system (NFS), can enable malware to spread quickly as users access and download infected

files.

 File-sharing software can allow malware to replicate itself onto removable media and then on to

computer systems and networks.

 Peer to peer (P2P) file sharing can introduce malware by sharing files as seemingly harmless as

music or pictures.

 Remotely exploitable vulnerabilities can enable a hacker to access systems regardless of

geographic location with little or no need for involvement by a computer user.

How to Prevent Malware:

A variety of security solutions are used to detect and prevent malware. These include firewalls,

next-generation firewalls, network intrusion prevention systems (IPS), deep packet inspection

(DPI) capabilities, unified threat management systems, antivirus and anti-spam gateways, virtual

private networks, content filtering and data leak prevention systems. In order to prevent malware,

all security solutions should be tested using a wide range of malware-based attacks to ensure

they are working properly. A robust, up-to-date library of malware signatures must be used to

ensure testing is completed against the latest attacks

The Cortex XDR agent combines multiple methods of prevention at critical phases within the

attack lifecycle to halt the execution of malicious programs and stop the exploitation of

legitimate applications, regardless of operating system, the endpoint’s online or offline status,

and whether it is connected to an organization’s network or roaming. Because the Cortex XDR

agent does not depend on signatures, it can prevent zero-day malware and unknown exploits

through a combination of prevention methods.

Malware Detection:

Advanced malware analysis and detection tools exist such as firewalls, Intrusion Prevention

Systems (IPS), and sandboxing solutions. Some malware types are easier to detect, such

as ransomware, which makes itself known immediately upon encrypting your files. Other

malware like spyware, may remain on a target system silently to allow an adversary to maintain

access to the system. Regardless of the malware type or malware meaning, its detectability or the

person deploying it, the intent of malware use is always malicious.

When you enable behavioral threat protection in your endpoint security policy, the Cortex XDR

agent can also continuously monitor endpoint activity for malicious event chains identified by

Palo Alto Networks.

Malware Removal:

Antivirus software can remove most standard infection types and many options exist for off-the-

shelf solutions. Cortex XDR enables remediation on the endpoint following an alert or

investigation giving administrators the option to begin a variety of mitigation steps starting with

isolating endpoints by disabling all network access on compromised endpoints except for traffic

to the Cortex XDR console, terminating processes to stop any running malware from continuing

to perform malicious activity on the endpoint, and blocking additional executions, before

quarantining malicious files and removing them from their working directories if the Cortex

XDR agent has not already done so.

Malware Protection:

To protect your organization against malware, you need a holistic, enterprise-wide malware

protection strategy. Commodity threats are exploits that are less sophisticated and more easily

detected and prevented using a combination of antivirus, anti-spyware, and vulnerability

protection features along with URL filtering and Application identification capabilities on the

firewall.

Q)What is a Firewall?
A Firewall is a network security device that monitors and filters incoming and outgoing network
traffic based on an organization’s previously established security policies. At its most basic, a
 firewall is essentially the barrier that sits between a private internal network and the public
Internet. A firewall’s main purpose is to allow non-threatening traffic in and to keep dangerous
traffic out.

 Gen 1 Virus

o Generation 1, Late 1980’s, virus attacks on stand-alone PC’s affected all businesses and drove
anti-virus products.

 Gen 2 Networks

o Generation 2, Mid 1990’s, attacks from the internet affected all business and drove creation of
the firewall.

 Gen 3 Applications

o Generation 3, Early 2000’s, exploiting vulnerabilities in applications which affected most

businesses and drove Intrusion Prevention Systems Products (IPS).

 Gen 4 Payload

o Generation 4, Approx. 2010, rise of targeted, unknown, evasive, polymorphic attacks which
affected most businesses and drove anti-bot and sandboxing products.

 Gen 5 Mega

o Generation 5, Approx. 2017, large scale, multi-vector, mega attacks using advance attack tools
and is driving advance threat prevention solutions.

Back in 1993, Check Point CEO Gil Shwed introduced the first stateful inspection firewall,
FireWall-1. Fast forward twenty-seven years, and a firewall is still an organization’s first line of
defense against cyber attacks. Today’s firewalls, including Next Generation Firewalls and
Network Firewalls support a wide variety of functions and capabilities with built-in features,
including:

 Network Threat Prevention

 Application and Identity-Based Control

 Hybrid Cloud Support

 Scalable Performance
 Types of Firewalls
 Packet filtering

A small amount of data is analyzed and distributed according to the filter’s standards.

 Proxy service

Network security system that protects while filtering messages at the application layer.

 Stateful inspection

Dynamic packet filtering that monitors active connections to determine which network packets to
allow through the Firewall.

 Next Generation Firewall (NGFW)

Deep packet inspection Firewall with application-level inspection.

What Firewalls Do?

A Firewall is a necessary part of any security architecture and takes the guesswork out of host
level protections and entrusts them to your network security device. Firewalls, and especially
Next Generation Firewalls, focus on blocking malware and application-layer attacks, along with
an integrated intrusion prevention system (IPS), these Next Generation Firewalls can react
quickly and seamlessly to detect and react to outside attacks across the whole network. They can
set policies to better defend your network and carry out quick assessments to detect invasive or
suspicious activity, like malware, and shut it down.

Why Do We Need Firewalls?

Firewalls, especially Next Generation Firewalls, focus on blocking malware and application-
layer attacks.

Along with an integrated intrusion prevention system (IPS), these Next Generation Firewalls are
able to react quickly and seamlessly to detect and combat attacks across the whole network.

Firewalls can act on previously set policies to better protect your network and can carry out
quick assessments to detect invasive or suspicious activity, such as malware, and shut it down.
By leveraging a firewall for your security infrastructure, you’re setting up your network with
specific policies to allow or block incoming and outgoing traffic.

What is Cybercrime? Explain different types of cybercrimes.

Cybercrime is defined as a crime where a computer is the object of the crime or is used as a tool
to commit an offense. A cybercriminal may use a device to access a user’s personal
information, confidential business information, government information, or disable a device. It is
also a cybercrime to sell or elicit the above information online.

Crimes that target networks or Crimes using devices to participate in criminal

devices activities

Viruses Phishing Emails

Malware Cyberstalking

DoS Attacks Identity Theft

Categories of Cybercrime
There are three major categories that cybercrime falls into: individual, property and government.
The types of methods used and difficulty levels vary depending on the category.

There are three major categories that cybercrime falls into: individual, property and government.
The types of methods used and difficulty levels vary depending on the category.

Property: This is similar to a real-life instance of a criminal illegally possessing an individual’s

bank or credit card details. The hacker steals a person’s bank details to gain access to funds,
make purchases online or run phishing scams to get people to give away their information. They
could also use a malicious software to gain access to a web page with confidential information.

Individual: This category of cybercrime involves one individual distributing malicious or illegal
information online. This can include cyberstalking, distributing pornography and trafficking.

Government: This is the least common cybercrime, but is the most serious offense. A crime
against the government is also known as cyber terrorism. Government cybercrime includes
hacking government websites, military websites or distributing propaganda. These criminals are
usually terrorists or enemy governments of other nations.

Types of Cybercrime

DDoS Attacks
DDoS attacks are used to make an online service unavailable and take the network down by
overwhelming the site with traffic from a variety of sources. Large networks of infected devices
known as Botnets are created by depositing malware on users’ computers. The hacker then hacks
into the system once the network is down.

Botnets
Botnets are networks from compromised computers that are controlled externally by remote
hackers. The remote hackers then send spam or attack other computers through these botnets.
Botnets can also be used to act as malware and perform malicious tasks.

Identity Theft
This cybercrime occurs when a criminal gains access to a user’s personal information to steal
funds, access confidential information, or participate in tax or health insurance fraud. They can
also open a phone/internet account in your name, use your name to plan a criminal activity and
claim government benefits in your name. They may do this by finding out user’s passwords
through hacking, retrieving personal information from social media, or sending phishing emails.

Cyberstalking
This kind of cybercrime involves online harassment where the user is subjected to a plethora of
online messages and emails. Typically cyberstalkers use social media, websites and search
engines to intimidate a user and instill fear. Usually, the cyberstalker knows their victim and
makes the person feel afraid or concerned for their safety.

Social Engineering
Social engineering involves criminals making direct contact with you usually by phone or email.
They want to gain your confidence and usually pose as a customer service agent so you’ll give
the necessary information needed. This is typically a password, the company you work for, or
bank information. Cybercriminals will find out what they can about you on the internet and then
attempt to add you as a friend on social accounts. Once they gain access to an account, they can
sell your information or secure accounts in your name.

PUPs
PUPS or Potentially Unwanted Programs are less threatening than other cybercrimes, but are a
type of malware. They uninstall necessary software in your system including search engines and
pre-downloaded apps. They can include spyware or adware, so it’s a good idea to install
an antivirus software to avoid the malicious download.

Phishing
This type of attack involves hackers sending malicious email attachments or URLs to users to
gain access to their accounts or computer. Cybercriminals are becoming more established and
many of these emails are not flagged as spam. Users are tricked into emails claiming they need to
change their password or update their billing information, giving criminals access.

Prohibited/Illegal Content
This cybercrime involves criminals sharing and distributing inappropriate content that can be
considered highly distressing and offensive. Offensive content can include, but is not limited to,
sexual activity between adults, videos with intense violent and videos of criminal activity. Illegal
content includes materials advocating terrorism-related acts and child exploitation material. This
type of content exists both on the everyday internet and on the dark web, an anonymous network.
Online Scams
These are usually in the form of ads or spam emails that include promises of rewards or offers of
unrealistic amounts of money. Online scams include enticing offers that are “too good to be true”
and when clicked on can cause malware to interfere and compromise information.

Exploit Kits
Exploit kits need a vulnerability (bug in the code of a software) in order to gain control of a
user’s computer. They are readymade tools criminals can buy online and use against anyone with
a computer. The exploit kits are upgraded regularly similar to normal software and are available
on dark web hacking forums.

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