AP Bio – The Cell

Microscopes were invented in 1590 and refined during the 1600s.

 Cell walls were first seen by Robert Hooke in 1665 when he looked through a microscope
at dead cells from the bark of an oak tree.
 Antoni van Leeuwenhoek made lenses that could visualize living cells.
Light microscope (LM) – visible light passed through the specimen and then through the glass
lenses. Lenses bend light so the image of the specimen is magnified as it is projected into the
eye or into a camera.
Magnification: Ratio of object’s image size to its real size.
Resolution: Measure of the clarity of the image; minimum distance 2 points can be
separated and still be distinguished as several points.
Contrast: Difference in brightness between the light and dark images of an image.
Ex: Staining or labeling cell components to stand out visually

There are different types of microscopies:

Advantage: Studying living cells.

Organelles – membrane enclosed structures within eukaryotic cells
Cells range from 1 and 100 m.

Electron microscope (EM) – focuses a beam of electrons through the specimen or onto its
surface.
Disadvantage: methods kill cells.
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) – useful for the detailed study of the topography. Shows
the 3-d structure of the surface of the specimen. Scans the surface of the sample and excites
electrons on the surface, and secondary electrons are detected by a device that translates the
pattern of electrons into an electronic signal sent to a video screen.

Transmission electron microscope (TEM) – used to study the internal structure of cells. Aims an
electron beam through a thin section of the specimen (specimen has been stained by atoms of
heavy metals). Electrons pass through the specimen are scattered more densely in denser
regions so fewer are transmitted. Image shows pattern of transmitted electrons.
Reveal subcellular structures.

For any type of microscopy, it can introduce artifacts, structures that do not exist in the cell.

Cell fractionation – useful technique for studying cell structure and function which takes cells
apart and separates major organelles and other subcellular structures from one another.
Enables researchers to prepare specific cell components in bulk and identify their
functions, a task not usually possible with intact cells.
Prokaryotic Cells (“before Similarities Eukaryotic Cells (“true nucleus)
nucleus”)
- Bacteria and Archaea - Plasma membrane - Protists, fungi, animals, and
- DNA is in the nucleoid - Cytosol – jellylike plants
which is not membrane substance where - Protist is diverse group of
closed. subcellular components unicellular eukaryotes.
- Some prokaryotes contain are suspended. - Most DNA is in the nucleus
regions surrounded by - Chromosomes carry genes which is bounded by a
proteins (not membranes) in the form of DNA. double membrane.
were specific reactions - Cytoplasm - In eukaryotic cells a
take place - Plasma membrane – a cytoplasm is region
- Typical bacteria are 1-5 selective barrier between nucleus and
m. (consisting of plasma membrane. It has a
- Don’t have ER. phospholipids) that allows variety of organelles of
passage of O, nutrients specialized form and
and wastes to service the function (membrane bound
cell. Only a limited structures are absent in
amount can cross per almost all prokaryotic cells)
second so ratio to surface - Larger than prokaryotic
area to volume is critical. cells.
- Eukaryotic cells are typically
10-100 m in diameter.
- Extensive, elaborately
arranged internal
membranes that divide the
cell into compartments
which support specific
metabolic functions.
- Plasma membrane and
organelle membrane
participate in cell’s
metabolism because many
enzymes are bult into the
membranes

Size relates to cell structure which relates to function. Cellular metabolism set limits to cell size.
Smaller cells are mycoplasmas which have diameters between 0.1 and 1.0 m.
Typical bacteria are 1-5 m.
Eukaryotic cells are typically 10-100 m in diameter.
As a cell increases in size, surface area grows less than volume. A smaller object has a greater
ratio of surface area to volume.
- Ex: microvilli which are long, thin projections from a cell which increase surface area and
not much volume.
 - Especially important in cells that exchange a lot of material with their surroundings (i.e.
intestinal cells)
Larger organisms do not have larger cells than smaller organisms. They just have more cells.

Most membranes have a double layer of phospholipids and other lipids with diverse proteins
attached.

Eukaryotic Cells:
Nucleus: contains most of the cells in the eukaryotic cell, most conspicuous. Around 5 m in
diameter.
 Directs protein synthesis by synthesizing messenger RNA (mRNA) according to
instructions provided by the DNA
 Then mRNA is transported to cytoplasm via nuclear pores
 Once it reaches the cytoplasm and ribosomes translate the mRNA’s genetic message into
the primary structure of a specific polypeptide.
Nuclear envelope – encloses the nucleus separating its contents from the cytoplasm.
 Double membrane, each lipid bilayer with associated proteins.
 Has pore structures that are about 100 nm in diameter.
o At the lip of each pore the inner and outer membranes are continuous.
 Pore complex lines each pore and plays an important role by regulating entry/exit of
proteins, RNAs and macromolecules.

Nuclear lamina – At nuclear side of envelope, netlike array of protein filaments that maintains
the shape of the nucleus by mechanically supporting the nuclear envelope.
Nuclear matrix – framework of protein fibers extending throughout the nuclear interior.
Chromosomes – DNA is organized into discrete units. Structures that carry the genetic
information.
 Contain one long DNA molecule.
 Chromatin – complex of DNA and proteins making up chromosomes.
o When a cell is not dividing chromosomes cannot be distinguished.
o As a cell prepares to divide chromosomes divide further
 Eukaryotic cells have 46 chromosomes (exceptions are sex cells with only 23
chromosomes)
Nucleolus (p. nucleoli) – within nondividing nucleus which is granules and fibers adjoining part
of chromatin.
 A type of RNA (rRNA) is synthesized from DNA.
 Proteins imported from cytoplasm are assembled with rRNA into large and small
subunits of ribosomes.
 There can be two or more nucleoli (depends on species and stages in reproductive cycle)

Ribosomes – complexes made of ribosomal RNAs, and proteins are the cellular components
that carry out protein synthesis. (Not membrane bounded and are not organelles)
  Cells that have high rates of protein synthesis have a lot of ribosomes.
 Build proteins in 2 cytoplasmic locales.
 Free ribosomes – suspended in cytosol.
o Ex: enzymes that catalyze the first steps of sugar breakdown
 Bound ribosomes – attached to the outside of the ER or nuclear envelope.
o Make proteins that are destined for insertion into membranes for packaging
within certain organelles like lysosomes or for export from the cell (secretion)
 Both structurally identical.

Endomembrane system – membrane bound organelles which includes the nuclear envelope,
ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles, vacuoles, plasma membrane. Membranes are not
identical in structure and function. Thickness, molecular composition, types of chemical
reactions carried out in a given membrane are not fixed and may be modified several times
during membrane’s life.
Vesicles – Transfer of membrane segments (sacs made of membrane)

Endoplasmic (“within the cytoplasm”) Reticulum (“little net”) (ER) – extensive network of
membranes that has more than half the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells.
 Mechanical support, intracellular transport, protein synthesis
 Network of membranous tubules and sacs called cisternae.
 ER membrane separated internal compartment of ER (ER lumen (cavity) or cisternal sacs,
from the cytosol).
 ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope.
 Smooth ER – lacks ribosomes
o Synthesis of lipids
 Oils
 Steroids
 In animal cells are sez hormones of vertebrates and the various
steroid hormones secreted by the adrenal glands
 Cells that synthesize and secrete these hormones are rich in ER.
 New membrane
 Phospholipids
o Metabolism of carbohydrates
o Detoxification of drugs and poisons
 Enzymes from ER, especially in liver cells
 Add hydroxyl groups to drug molecules, make more soluble and easier to
flush from body.
 i.e., Sedative phenobarbital and other barbiturates
 Barbiturates, alcohol, other drugs induce proliferation of smooth ER and
associated detoxification enzymes which increases rate of detoxification
 increase in tolerance to drugs  higher doses for sedation (might not
only be for that drug, but other drugs)
o Storage of calcium ions
  In muscle cells it pumps calcium ions from cytosol to ER lumen.
 Stimulated by nerve impulse and rush back across the ER membrane into
the cytosol and trigger contraction of muscle cells.
 Release of calcium ions can trigger secretion of vesicles, etc.
 Rough ER – has ribosomes and appears rough.
o Glycoproteins – proteins with carbohydrates covalently bonded to them. The
carbs attached to the proteins in the ER lumen by enzymes built into the ER
membrane.
o ER membrane keeps secretory proteins separate from proteins in the cytosol
which are produced by free ribosomes.
o Transport forms the ER in transport vesicles, vesicles in transit from one part of
the cell to another.
o Membrane factory. Grows by adding proteins and phospholipids to its
membrane.
 Golgi Apparatus – warehouse for receiving, sorting, shipping, and even some
manufacturing.
o Extensive in cells specialized for secretion.
o Consists of cisternae (membranous sacs).
 Membrane of each cisterna in a stack separates its internal space from
the cytosol.
 Membranes of cisternae on opposite sides of the stack differ in thickness
and molecular composition.
o Vesicles near the Golgi transfer material between Golgi and other structures.
o Faces of Golgi are the cis face and trans face.
 Cis: Means on the same side, receiving side, near ER.
 A transport vesicle from the ER can add its membrane and
contents of its lumen to the cis face by fusing with a Golgi
membrane on that side.
 Trans: shipping side.
o Products of ER are modified on transport from cis side to trans side.
 Ex: Glycoproteins and phospholipids.
o Manufactures some macromolecules.
 Ex: Polysaccharides like pectin and other non-cellulose polysaccharides
are made by Golgi of plant cells and incorporated along with cellulose
into cell walls.
o Manufacturers and refines its products in stages with different cisternae.
 Lysosomes: A membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that many eukaryotic cells to
digest (hydrolyze) macromolecules.
o Work best in an acidic environment found in lysosomes.
o If a lysosome breaks open or leaks its contents, the released enzymes are not
very active because the cytosol has a near neutral pH. Excessive leakage from a
large number of lysosomes can destroy a cell by self-digestion.
o Some lysosomes arise by budding from the trans face of the Golgi apparatus.
 o Phagocytosis: Amoebas and many other unicellular eukaryotes eat by engulfing
smaller organisms or other food particles.
 Food vacuole formed this way (engulfing food) fuses with a lysosome
whose enzymes digest the food.
 Digestion products like simple sugars, amino acids, and other monomers
pass into the cytosol and become nutrients for the cell.
 Some human cells also do phagocytosis.
 Ex: Macrophages – white blood cell that helps defend the body by
engulfing an destroying bacteria and other invaders.
o Autophagy: use hydrolytic enzymes to recycle the cell’s own material.
 Damaged organelle or a small amount of cytosol becomes surrounded by
a double membrane and a lysosome fuse with the outer membrane of
the vesicle.
 Lysosome enzymes dismantle the inner membrane with the enclosed
material and the resulting small organic compounds are released to the
cytosol for reuses.
 With the help of lysosomes, the cell continually renews itself.
o Cells of people with inherited storage diseases lack a functioning hydrolytic
enzyme normally present in lysosomes. Lysosomes become engorged with
indigestible material which interferes with other cellular activities.
 Ex: Tay-Sachs disease.
 Vacuoles: Large vesicles derived from the ER and Golgi. Integral part of cell’s
endomembrane system.
o Selective.
o Food vacuoles: formed by phagocytosis.
o Contractile vacuoles: pump excess water out of cell.
 Unicellular eukaryotes living in fresh water.
 Maintain a suitable concentration of ions and molecules inside the cell.
 In plants and fungi some vacuoles carry out enzymatic hydrolysis.
o In plants, small vacuoles and hold reserves of important organic compounds.
o Protect the plant against herbivores by storing compounds that are poisonous or
unpalatable to animals.
o Contain pigments.
o Central vacuoles: develops by the coalescence of smaller vacuoles.
 Largest compartment in plant cell.
 Cell sap: solution inside central vacuole.
 Plant cell’s main repository of inorganic ions (ex: K and Cl)
 Enlarges as the vacuole absorbs water.
 Enables cell to become larger with minimal investment in new cytoplasm.
 Cytosol is a thin layer between the central vacuole and plasma
membrane.
 Mitochondria: Sites of cellular respiration, the metabolic process that uses O to drive
the generation of ATP by extracting energy from sugars, fats and other fuels.
 o In plant and animal cells
o Two membranes
 Phospholipid bilayer
 Outer membrane is smooth, but the inner membrane is complex with
infoldings called cristae.
o Increases surface are and enhances productivity of cellular
respiration.
 Inner membrane divides mitochondrion into:
 Intermembrane space: region between inner and out membranes
o ETC and ATP synthesis
 Mitochondrial matrix: encoded by the inner membrane, has
enzymes, mitochondrial DNA, and ribosomes.
o Enzymes catalyze some steps of cellular respiration.
o Proteins that are used in respiration (like enzyme that
makes ATP) are in inner membrane.
o Krebs cycle here
o Contain ribosomes, circular DNA molecules (like bacterial chromosomes)
associated with their inner membranes.
o Autonomous (somewhat independent) organelles that grow and reproduce
within the cell.
o Found in nearly all eukaryotic cells (lants, animals and unicellular eukaryotes).
o A cell can have more than one mitochondrion.
 Number correlates with cell’s level of metabolic activity.
o Constantly change, grow, and pinch in two to reproduce.
o Mobile and move around the cell along tracks of cytoskeleton.
 Chloroplasts: found in plants and algae are sites of photosynthesis.
o Convert solar energy to chemical energy by absorbing sunlight and using it to
drive the synthesis of organic compounds such as sugars from carbon dioxide and
water.
o Two membranes
o Contain ribosomes, circular DNA molecules (like bacterial chromosomes)
associated with their inner membranes.
o Autonomous (somewhat independent) organelles that grow and reproduce
within the cell.
o Contain chlorophyl, found in leaves and green organs of plants.
o Thylakoids: membranous system in the form of flattened, interconnected sacs.
 Contain chlorophyll pigments and Electron transport proteins.
o Granum: thylakoids in a stack
o Stroma: fluid outside the thylakoids which contains chloroplast DNA and
ribosomes and enzymes.
 Carbon fixation here.
o Compartmental organization of the chloroplast enables cell to convert light
energy to chemical energy.
 o Plastid: a family of closely related plant organelles.
 Ex: chloroplast, amyloplast (colorless organelle that stores starch),
chromoplast (pigments that give frits and flowers orange and yellow
hues).
 Endosymbiont theory: states that an early ancestor of eukaryotic cells engulfed an
oxygen-using non-photosynthetic prokaryotic cell. The engulfed cell formed a
relationship with the host cell in which it was enclosed, becoming an endosymbiont (cell
living with another cell).
o Host cell and endosymbiont merged into a single organism, a eukaryotic cell with
a mitochondrion.
o At least one of these cells would have taken a photosynthetic prokaryote,
becoming the ancestor of eukaryotic cells that contain chloroplasts.
 Peroxisomes: specialized metabolic compartment bounded by a single membrane.
o Contain enzymes that remove H atoms from various substrates and transfer them
to O producing Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
 Oxidation
o Can use O to break down fatty acids that are transported to mitochondria and
used as fuel for cellular respiration.
o In the liver they detoxify alcohol and other harmful compounds by transferring H
from poisonous compounds to O.
o Hydrogen peroxide formed by peroxisomes is toxic, but the organelle has an
enzyme that turns it into water.
o Glyoxysomes: specialized peroxisomes in fat-storing tissues of plant seeds.
 Have enzymes that initiate the conversion of fatty acids to sugar which
the emerging seedling uses as a source of energy and carbon until it can
produce its own sugar by photosynthesis.
o Grow larger by including proteins made in the cytosol and ER and lipids made in
the ER and within the peroxisome.
 Cytoskeleton: a network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm.
o Stabilized by a balance between opposite forces exerted by its elements.
o Provides anchorage for many organelles and even cytosolic enzyme molecules.
o Can be dismantled in one part of the cell and reassembled in a new location and
changing the shape of the cell.
o Cell motility: changes in cell location and movements of cell parts.
 Motor proteins: Cell motility requires interaction of the cell with these.
 Ex: Cytoskeletal elements and motor proteins work together with
the plasma membrane molecules to allow cells to move along
fibers outside the cell.
 Inside the cell vesicles and other organelles use motor protein to
walk to destinations along a track provided by the cytoskeleton.
o Three main types of fibers that make up the cytoskeleton:
 Microtubules: hollow rods constructed from globular proteins called
tubulins
 Thickest
 Hollow tubes.
 Maintenance of cell shape (compression-resisting girders), cell
motility (Cilla, or flagella), chromosome movements in cell
division, organelle movements.
 Each tubulin protein is a dimer, a molecule made up of two or
more subunits.
o Tubulin dimer consists of 3 slightly different polypeptides,
a-tubulin and B-tubulin.
 Grow in length by adding tubulin dimers.
 Can be disassembled and their tubulins used to build microtubules
elsewhere in the cell.
 Two ends are slightly different.
o One end can accumulate or release tubulin dimers at a
much higher rate than the other. (Grows and shrink during
cellular activities)
 Shape and support the cell and serves as tracks along organelles
with motor proteins can move.
 Involved in separation of chromosomes during cell division.
 Centrosome: what microtubules grow out of. Region located in
the nucleus. Function as compression-resisting girders of the
cytoskeleton.
o Centrioles: Within the centrosome, composed of nine sets
of triplet microtubules in a ring.
 Help organize microtubule assembly in animal cells.
 Flagella: microtubule-containing extensions that project from
some cells.
o Unicellular eukaryotes are propelled through water by cilia
that act as locomotor appendages.
o Sperm of animals, algae and some plants have flagella.
o Can move fluid over the surface of a tissue layer [if cell is
held in place as part of it]
o Only 1 or a few per cell. Longer than cilia.
o Like a fish swimming
o Shares a common structure with flagella.
o Nine doublets of microtubules are arranged in a ring with
two centrioles in its center.
 9 + 2 pattern
 Assembly is anchored by a basal body.
 Structurally similar to centriole
 9 + 0 pattern
  In many animals the basal body of the
fertilizing cell enters the egg and becomes a
centriole.
o Dynein: large motor proteins attached along each outer
microtubule doublet. They are responsible for bending
movements of cilia and flagella.
 2 “feet” that “walk” along the microtubule of the
adjacent doublet, using ATP for energy.
 One foot remains on contact, the other releases
and reattaches one step along the microtubule.
o Outer doublets and 2 central microtubules are held
together by cross-linking proteins.
o Waking is coordinated so that it happens on one side of
the circle at a time.
 Without it they would slide past each other.
 Cilla: microtubule-containing extensions that project from some
cells.
o Unicellular eukaryotes are propelled through water by cilia
that act as locomotor appendages.
o Can move fluid over the surface of a tissue layer [if cell is
held in place as part of it]
 Ex: Cilla in trachea (windpipe) sweeps mucus debris
out of lungs.
o Motile cilia occur in large numbers on cell surface.
o Like rhythmic rowing.
o Signal-receiving antenna.
 Nonmobile
 One per cell
 Transmit molecular signals from the cell’s
environment to its interior, triggering signaling
pathways that may lead to changes in the cell’s
activities.
 Crucial to brain function and embryonic
development.
 In vertebrates it is a primary cilium.
o Shares a common structure with flagella.
o Nine doublets of microtubules are arranged in a ring with
two centrioles in its center.
 9 + 2 pattern
 Nonmobile nonprimary cilia have a 9 + 0 patter (no
central pair of microtubules.
 Assembly is anchored by a basal body.
 Structurally similar to centriole
  9 + 0 pattern
 In many animals the basal body of the
fertilizing cell enters the egg and becomes a
centriole.
 Microfilaments (or actin filaments because they are built from actin):
Thin solid rods
 Thinnest
 Two intertwined strands of actin
 Maintenance of cell shape (tension-bearing elements), changes in
cell shape, muscle of contraction, cytoplasmic streaming in plant
cells, cell motility (as in amoeboid movement), division of animal
cells.
 Can form structural networks when certain proteins bind along
the side of such a filament and allow a new filament to extend as
a branch.
 Present in all eukaryotic cells
 Structural role is to bear tension.
 3d structure of microfilaments in plasma membrane helps support
cell shape.
o Gives support to outer cytoplasmic layer of cell called…
o Cortex: semisolid consistency of a gel. (contrasting more
fluid cytoplasm).
o Bundles of microfilaments make up the core of microvilli
(delicate projections that increase cell’s surface area).
 Myosin: protein made up of thousands of actin filaments and
thicker filaments.
o Causes muscle contraction.
o In the unicellular eukaryote amoeba or some white blood
cells, contractions by actin and myosin cause amoeboid
(crawling) movement of cells.
o Pseudopodia: extending cellular extensions is how a cell
crawls along the surface.
o Cytoplasmic Streaming: [in plant cells, actin protein
interactions contribute to this], speeds up the movement
of organelles and distribution of .
 Intermediate filaments:
 Middle range of thickness.
 Fibrous proteins coiled into cables.
 Maintenance of cell shape (tension-bearing elements), anchorage
of nucleus and contain certain other organelles, formation of
nuclear lamina.
o Specialized for bearing tension.
 Found in the cells of some animals (not all eukaryotic cells)
  Has a diverse class of cytoskeletal elements:
o Each type is constructed from a particular molecular
subunit from a family of proteins (like keratins)
 Vs. Microtubules and microfilaments are consistent
in diameter and composition in all eukaryotic cells.
 Intermediate filaments more permanent fixtures in
cells vs. microtubules and microfilaments which are
often dissembled and reassembled.
 Even after cell dies the intermediate filaments still persist.
 Intermediate filaments are very sturdy and play a big role in
reinforcing the shape of the cell and fixing the position of certain
organelles.
o Ex: Nucleus held in place by intermediate filaments that
extend into the cytoplasm.
o Ex: Intermediate filaments make up the nuclear lamina
which lines the interior of the nuclear envelope.
o By supporting cell shape intermediate filaments help the
cell carry out its specific function.
 Cell wall: extracellular structure of plant cells (prokaryotes, fungi, unicellular
eukaryotes).
o Protects the plant cell, maintains cell shape, and prevents excessive uptake of
water.
o Hold up the plant against gravity.
o Chemical composition varies from species to species.
o Basic design of wall is consistent.
 Microfibrils made of cellulose are synthesized by cellulose synthase and
secreted to the extracellular space where they become embedded in a
matrix of other polysaccharides and proteins.
 Primary cell wall – young cell first secretes a thin and flexible wall.
 Middle lamella: Between primary walls of adjacent cells, a thin layer rich
in stick polysaccharides called pectins.
 Glues adjacent cells together.
 When the cell matures and stops growing it strengthens the cell.
 Secondary cell wall: between the plasma membrane and primary wall.
 Deposited in several laminated layers and has a strong and
durable matrix that affords the cell protection and support.
 Extracellular Matrix (ECM): glycoproteins and other carbohydrate containing molecules
secreted by the cells.
o Collagen: Most abundant glycoprotein in the ECM of most animal cells which
forms strong fibers outside the cell. (40% of total proteins in the human body)
o Proteoglycans: Collagen fibers are in proteoglycan network secreted by cells.
 Consist of one small core protein with many carbohydrate chains
covalently attached, so that it may be up by 95% carbohydrate.
  Can form when hundreds of proteoglycans molecules became
noncovalently attached to a single long polysaccharide molecule.
o Fibronectin: how some cells are attached to the ECM.
 Bind to cell-surface receptor proteins called integrins that are built into
the plasma membrane.
 Integrins span the membrane and bind on their cytoplasmic side
to associated proteins attached to microfilaments of the
cytoskeleton.
o Transmit signals between ECM and cytoskeleton and thus
to integrate changes occurring outside and inside the cell.
o Regulates cell behavior:
 Ex: Cell in developing embryo move along specific
pathways to match the orientation of their
microfilaments to the “grain” of fibers in the
extracellular matrix.
 ECM around a cell can influence activity of genes in
nucleus.
 Info probably reaches the nucleus by a combination
of mechanical ad chemical signaling pathways.
 Mechanical – fibronectin, integrins and
microfilaments
 Changes in cytoskeleton may trigger signaling
pathways inside the cell, leading to changes in the
set of proteins made by the cell and therefore
changes in cell’s function.
 Cell junctions:
o Plasmodesmata: channels that connect cells.
 Cytosol passing through plasmodesmata joins the internal chemical
environments of adjacent cells.
 Plasma membranes of adjacent cells line the channel of each
plasmodesma and are continues.
 Water and solutes can pass freely.
 Tight junctions: Plasma membranes are tightly pressed against each
other. Prevents leakage of extracellular fluid across a layer of epithelial
cells. (ex: make skin watertight)
 Desmosomes: rivets, fastening cells together into strong sheets.
 Intermediate filaments anchor desmosomes in cytoplasm.
 Attach muscle cells to each other.
 A muscle tear is the rupture of desmosomes.
 Gap junctions; Cytoplasmic channels from one cell to adjacent cell.
 Membrane proteins surround a pore through which ions, sugars,
amino acids, and other small molecules may pass.
 Necessary for communication between cells in many types of
tissues.
Cell structure correlates with function.
Ex: Macrophage:
- Defends against infections by digesting bacteria into phagocytic vesicles.
- Craws along surface and reaches out to bacteria with thin pseudopodia.
- Actin filaments interact with other elements of the cytoskeleton.
- Bacteria is destroyed by lysosomes made by ER.
- Digestive enzymes of the lysosomes and proteins of cytoskeleton are made by
ribosomes.
- Proteins are programmed from messages from DNA.
- Require energy made from mitochondria as ATP.