HYDRO-STATICS

Fluids are the substances that can flow or deforms. Therefore liquids and gases both are fluids.

The intermolecular force in liquids are comparatively weaker than in solids. Therefore, their shapes can be
changed easily. When external force (shear stress) are present, liquid can flow until it conforms to the boundaries
of its container. Most liquids resist compression. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a
container and it forms a free surface.

The intermolecular forces are weakest in gases,so their shapes and sizes can be changed much easily. Gases
are highly compressible and occupy the entire space of the container quite rapidly. Unlike liquid, gases can't
form free surface.

2.1 Density (r)

Mass per unit volume of a substance is defined as density. So density at a point of a fluid is expressed as

Dm dm
r = limit =
DV ®0 DV dV
SI UNIT : kg/m3 ; CGS UNIT : g/cc Dimensions : [ML–3]
Density is a positive scalar quantity.
2.2 Specific Weight or Weight Density (w)
It is defined as the ratio of the weight of the substance to its volume or the weight acting per unit volume of the
fluid.

weight (W) mg é m ù
w= = = ê ú g = rg .
volume (V) V ëVû

SI Unit : N/m3 Dimensions : [ML–2T–2]

Specific weight of pure water is 9.81 kN/m3 at 4°C.

2.3 Relative Density

It is defined as the ratio of the density of the given fluid to the density of pure water at 4°C.

density of given liquid rl

Relative density (R.D.) = = r
density of pure water at 4°C w

Relative density is a unitless and dimensionless positive scalar quantity.

Being a dimensionless/unitless quantity R.D. of a substance is same in both SI and CGS system.

2.4 Specific Gravity

It is defined as the ratio of the specific weight of the given fluid to the specific weight of pure water at 4°C.

specific weight of given liquid

Specific gravity =
specific weight of pure water at 4°C (9.81 kN m3 )

rl ´ g rl
= = = R.D. of the liquid.
rw ´ g r w
Thus the specific gravity of a liquid is numerically equal to the relative density of that liquid and for calculation
purposes they are used interchangeably.
2.5 Pressure
Pressure P is defined as the magnitude of the normal force acting per unit surface area.
DF
P= , here DF= normal force on a surface of area DA
DA
DA
DF DF

SI UNIT : Pascal (Pa) ; 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 Dimensions : [ML–1T–2]

Practical units : atmospheric pressure (atm), bar and torr.
1 atm = 1.01325 × 105 Pa = 1.01325 bar = 760 torr = 760 mm of Hg = 10.33 m of water
1 bar = 105 Pa ; 1 torr = pressure exerted by 1 mm of mercury column = 133 Pa.
Pressure is a scalar quantity. This is because hydrostatic pressure is transmitted equally in all directions when
force is applied, which shows that pressure is not associated with a definite direction.
Consequences of pressure
(i) Railway tracks are laid on wide wooden or iron sleepers. This is because the weight (force) of the train is
spread over a large area of the sleeper. This reduces the pressure acting on the ground and hence prevents
the yielding of ground under the weight of the train.
(ii) A sharp knife is more effective in cutting the objects than a blunt knife. The pressure exerted = Force / area.
The sharp knife transmits force over a small area as compared to the blunt knife. Hence the pressure exerted
in case of a sharp knife is more than that in case of a blunt knife.
(iii) A camel walks easily on sand but a horse cannot inspite of the fact that a camel is heavier than horse. This is
because the area of camel's feet is large as compared to horse's feet. So the pressure exerted by camel on the
sand is very small as compared to the pressure exerted by horse. Due to large pressure, sand under the feet of
horse yields and hence it cannot walk easily on sand.
Types of Pressures
In our day to day activity we commonly encounter the following three types of pressures :
Pressure is of three types
(i) Atmospheric pressure (Po) (ii) Gauge pressure (Pgauge) (iii) Absolute pressure (Pabs.)
(1) Atmospheric pressure and Torricelli's experiment :- Force
exerted by atmospheric column on unit cross-sectional area at mean
sea level is called atmospheric pressure (Po)
Po = 101.3 kN/m2
\ Po = 1.013×105 N/m2
A tube of length 1 m and uniform cross section is taken. It is filled
with mercury and inverted into a mercury tray. The height of the mercury Patm

column in equilibrium inside the tube is 76 cm.

\ atmospheric pressure Po = rgh

3 –2
= 13.6 × 10 × 9.81 × 76 × 10
= 1.013 × 105 N/m2
Note :- The above apparatus is known as a barometer. Barometer is used to measure the atmospheric pressure.
 (2) Gauge Pressure :- Excess Pressure over the atmospheric pressure ( P– Patm ) measured with the help
of pressure measuring instruments is called gauge pressure.

F Mg ( volume ´ density ) g ( Ah ) rg
Pgauge = = = =
A A A A
Po
Pgauge = hrg or Pgauge µ h

h
P

C x' x
A B

pressure due to liquid PA = PB = PC Px' = Px

Px' = Po + hrg
Gauge pressure = Px' – Po = hrg
Note :- Gauge pressure is always measured with the help of a "manometer".
(3) Absolute Pressure :- Sum of the atmospheric and gauge pressure is called absolute pressure.
Pabs = Patm + Pgauge
Pabs = Po + hrg

Pressure exerted by a liquid (Effect of gravity) :

Consider a vessel containing liquid. As the liquid is in equilibrium, so every volume element of the fluid is also
in equilibrium. Consider one such volume element in the form of a cylindrical column of liquid of height h and
of area of cross section A. The various forces acting on the cylindrical column of liquid are :
(i) Force F1 = P1 A, acting vertically downward on the top face of the column. P 1 is the pressure of the liquid on
the top face of the column.
(ii) Force F2 = P2 A, acting vertically upward at the bottom face of the cylindrical column. P2 is the pressure of
the liquid on the bottom face of the column.
(iii) W = mg, weight of the cylindrical column of the liquid acting vertically downward.
Since the cylindrical column of the liquid is in equilibrium, so the net force acting on the column is zero.
mg F1
F1 + W – F2 =0 Þ P1A +mg – P2A = 0 ÞP1A + mg = P2 A \ P2 = P1 + ...(i)
A
Now, mass of the cylindrical column of the liquid is,
h
m = volume × density of the liquid = Area of cross section × height × density = Ahr mg

Ahrg
\ equation (i) becomes P2 =P1 + , P2 = P1 + hrg ...(ii)
A F2
P2 is the absolute pressure at a depth h below the free surface of the liquid. Equation (ii), shows that the
absolute pressure at a depth h is greater than the absolute pressure (P1) by an amount equal to hrg.
Equation (ii) can also be written as (P2–P1) = hrg which is the difference of pressures between two points
separated by a depth h.
2.6 Pascal's Law
Pascal's law is stated in following ways –
l A liquid exerts equal pressures in all directions.
l If the pressure in an enclosed fluid is changed at a particular point, the change is transmitted to every
point of the fluid and to the walls of the container without being diminished in magnitude.
Applications of pascal's law : hydraulic jacks, hydraulic lifts, hydraulic press, hydraulic brakes, etc
Hydraulic lift

F1 principle of hydraulic
Pressure applied = lift or press
A1
F1
F2
\ Pressure transmitted = P A1 Q A2
A2
F2
F1 F
Q Pressure is equaly transmitted \ = 2
A1 A2
F1 A valve
\ Upward force on A2 is F2 = × A2 = 2 × F1 (A2 > A1)
A1 A1
2.7 Buoyancy and Archimede's Principle
Buoyant Force
If a body is partially or fully immersed in a fluid, it experiences an upward force due to the fluid surrounding it.
This phenomenon of force exerted by fluid on the body is called buoyancy and force is called buoyant force or
force of upthrust.
Archimede's Principle
It states that the upward buoyant force on a body that is partially or totally immersed in a fluid is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by it.
Consider a body immersed in a liquid of density s .
Top surface of the body experiences a downward force P0
F1
F1 = AP1 = A[h1.s.g + P0]...(i) A h1 h2
Lower face of the body will experience an upward force L

s A
F2 = AP2 = A[h2.s.g + P0]...(ii) F2

As h2 > h1 so F2 is greater than F1

so net upward force F = F2 – F1 = Asg[h2 – h1]

\ F = A.s.g.L. = Vin.s.g [Q Vin = volume of the body submerged in the fluid = AL ]

Principle of Floatation
When a body of density (r) and volume (V) is completely immersed in a liquid of density (s), the forces acting
on the body are :
(i) Weight of the body W = Mg = Vrg directed vertically downwards through the Centre of gravity of the body.
(ii) Buoyant force or Upthrust Th = Vsg directed vertically upwards through Centre of buoyancy.
The following three cases are possible :
Case I Density of the body is greater than that of liquid (r > s)
In this case W > Th
So the body will sink to the bottom of the liquid.
WApp = W – Th = Vrg – Vsg = Vrg (1 – s/r) = W (1 – s/r).
 Case II Density of the body is equal to the density of liquid (r = s)

In this case W = Th

So the body will float fully submerged in the liquid. It will be in neutral equilibrium.

WApp = W – Th = 0
Case III Density of the body is lesser than that of liquid (r < s)
In this case W < Th
So the body will float partially submerged in the liquid. In this case the volume of liquid displaced
by the body (Vin) will be less than the volume of body (V). This ensures that Th equally to W
\ WApp = W – Th = 0
The above three cases constitute the laws of floatation which states that a body will float in a liquid if
weight of the liquid displaced by the immersed part of the body is at least eqaul to the weight of the body.

KEY POINTS
l For a solid body volume and density will be same as that of its constituent substance of equal mass i.e. if
Mbody = Msub then Vbody = Vsub and rbody = rsub. But for a hollow body or body with air gaps or cavities,
Mbody = Msub and Vbody > Vsub then rbody < rsub
l If m1 mass of liquid of density r1 and m2 mass of an immiscible liquid of density r2 are mixed then

m 1 m2 M mix m + m2
Mmix. = m1 + m2 and Vmix = V1 + V2 = + \ rmix. = = 1
r1 r2 Vmix m1 m2
+
r1 r2

2r1r2
If liquids with same masses are mixed i.e. m1 = m2 = m then rmix. = r + r (Harmonic mean of individual
1 2

densities)
l If V1 volume of liquid of density r1 and V2 volume of liquid of density r2 are mixed then
Vmix. = V1 + V2 and Mmix. = m1 + m2 = r1V1 + r2V2
Mmix r1 V1 + r2 V2
\ rmix. = =
Vmix V1 + V2
r1 + r2
If liquids with same volumes are mixed i.e. V1 = V2 = V then rmix. = (Arithmetic mean of individual
2
densities)
l Although force is a vector, pressure is a scalar because fluid pressure has no intrinsic direction of its own.
Force due to fluid pressure always acts perpendicular to any surface in the fluid, no matter how that surface
is oriented.
l Pressure due to liquid on a vertical wall is different at different depths, so average fluid pressure on side wall
hrg
a of container = mean pressure = (h = height of wall)
2
l Buoyance force acts vertically upward through the centre of gravity (C.G.) of the displaced fluid. This point is
called the centre of buoyancy (C.B.). Thus the centre of buoyancy is the point through which the force of
buoyancy is supposed to act.
l Buoyant force or force of upthrust does not depend upon the characteristics of the body such as its mass,
size, density, etc. However it depends upon the volume of the body inside the liquid.
Th µ Vin
l It depends upon the nature of the fluid as it is proportional to the density of the fluid. Þ Th µ s
This is the reason that force of upthrust on a fully submerged body is more in sea water than in pure water.
(Q ssea > spure)
l The effective weight of a body decreases due to upthrust
WApp = W – Th (W is the true weight of the body)
Decrease in weight = W – WApp = Th = Weight of the fluid displaced
l Using Archimede's principle we can determine the relative density (R D) of a body as
density of body wt. of body
R.D. = =
density of pure water at 4°C wt. of equal volume of water

wt. of body wt. of body wt. of body in air WA

= = = =
force of upthrust due to water loss of wt. in water wt. in air - wt. in water WA - WW

l If a body is weighed in air (WA), in water (Ww) and in a liquid (WL), then

loss of weight in liquid WA - WL

specific gravity of liquid = =
loss of weight in water WA - WW
l In case of W = Th, the equilibrium of a floating body does not depend upon the variation in g though both
thrust and weight depends upon g.
l The weight of a plastic bag full of air is same as that of empty bag because the force of upthrust is equal to the
weight of the air enclosed.

Illustrations
Illustration 1
A hollow metallic sphere has inner and outer radii, as 5 cm and 10 cm respectively. If the mass of the sphere
is 2.5 kg. Find the (a) density of the material, (b) relative density of the material of the sphere.
Solution
Volume of the material of the sphere is

æ 4ö 4 éæ 10 ö 3 æ 5 ö 3 ù 4
( )
V = ç ÷ p r23 - r13 = ´ 3.14 ´ êç
è 3ø 3 è ÷ø - çè 100 ÷ø ú = 3 ´ 3.14 ´ [ 0.001 - 0.000125 ]
ëê 100 ûú
4
= × 3.14 × 0.000875 m3 = 0.00367 m3
3
M 2.5
(a) Therefore, density of the material of the sphere is r = = kg/m3 = 681.2 kg/m3
V 0.00367
681.2
(b) Relative density of the material of the sphere rr = = 0.6812
1000
Illustration
Two immiscible liquids of densities 2.5 g/cm3 and 0.8 g/cm3 are taken in the ratio of their masses as 2:3
respectively. Find the average density of the liquid combination.
Solution
æ 2M 3M ö
Let masses be 2M & 3M then V = V1 + V2 = ç + ÷ cm
3

è 2.5 0.8 ø
Total mass = 2M+3M = 5M

5M 5M 5 10
Therefore, the average density r av = = = = g/cm3 = 1.09 g/cm3
V 2M 3M 2 3 9.1
+ +
2.5 0.8 2.5 0.8
Illustration 2

During a blood transfusion a needle is inserted in a vein where the gauge pressure is 2000 Pa. At what height
must the blood container be placed so that blood may just enter the vein ?

[Density of blood = 1.06 × 103 kg/m3].

(1) 0.192 m (2) 0.182 m (3) 0.172 m (4) 0.162 m

Solution Ans. (1)

2000
Pressure P = hrg Þ h = = 0.192 m.
1.06 ´ 103 ´ 9.8

Illustration

Calculate the depth of a well if the pressure at its bottom is 15 times that at a depth of 3 metres. Atmospheric
pressure is 10 m column of water.

Solution

Let the depth of the well be h then according to the question,

Patm + hrw g = 15 (Patm + 3rw g)

hrw g = 14 Patm+ 45 rw g = 14 (10 × rw g) + 45 rw g

h = 185 m.

Illustration 3

A U-tube contains water and methylated spirit separated by mercury. The mercury columns in the two arms
are in level with 10.0 cm column of water in one arm and 12.5 cm column of spirit in the other. What is the
the specific gravity of spirit ?

Solution

Since level of mercury in the two arms of U-tube is same and if Pa is the atmospheric pressure then

rs hw 10
Pa + hwrwg = Pa + hsrsg Þ = = = 0·8 \ Specific gravity of spirit = 0.8
rw hs 12 × 5

Illustration 4

Two liquids that do not mix are poured into a U-shaped tube as shown in fig. Find the difference H in these
heights of liquids in terms of r1, r2 h.

Solution
B
Starting from the point B, we apply the manometric equation as – A H r2

PB + r2g(h + H) – r1gh = PA h
r1
Since PA = PB = Patm therefore

æ r - r2 ö
H=ç 1 ÷h
è r2 ø
Illustration 5

A vertical U–tube of uniform cross–section contains mercury in both

arms. A glycerine (relative density = 1.3) column of length 10 cm is
introduced into one of the arms. Oil of density 800 kg/m3 is poured
into the other arm until the upper surface of the oil and glycerine C
h
are at the same horizontal level. Find the length of the oil column.
Density of mercury is 13.6 × 103 kg/m3.
0.1m
Solution
(0.1-h) m
Pressure at A and B must be same

Pressure at A = P0 + 0.1 × (1.3 × 1000) × g A B

Pressure at B = P0 + h × 800 × g + (0.1 – h) × 13.6 × 1000 g

Þ 0.1 × 1300 = 800 h + (0.1 – h) × 13600

Þ h = 0.096 m = 9.6 cm

Illustration 6

A hydraulic automobile lift is designed to lift cars with a maximum mass of 3000 kg. The area of cross–section
of the piston carrying the load is 425 cm2. What maximum pressure would the piston have to bear ? (taking
g = 10 m/s2).

Solution

F2 3000 ´ 10 3000
According to Pascal's law P1 = P2 = A = –4 Pa = × 105 Pa = 7·06 × 105 Pa.
2 425 ´ 10 425

Illustration 7

A cubical box of wood of side 30 cm weighing 21.6 kg floats on water with two faces horizontal. Calculate

the depth of immersion of wood.

Solution

For a floating body, the weight of displaced liquid should be equal to the weight of the block. Let x be the

. ´ 103 ´ g
216
depth of immersion. Then (x × 30 × 30) × 1 × g = 21.6 × 103 × g Þ x = = 24 cm.
30 ´ 30 ´ g

Illustration 8

A block of brass of mass 0.5 kg and density 8× 10 3 kg/m3 is suspended from a string. What will be the tension
in the string if the block is completely immersed in water ? ( g=10 m/s2)

Solution

0.5
Volume of the block V = 3
m3
8 ´ 10
05
. 5
upthrust due to water (Th) = V rw g = 3
´ 103 ´ 10 = = 0.625 N
8 ´ 10 8
The tension in the string T = W - Th = mg – Th = 0.5 ×10 – 0.625 = 4.375 N.
Illustration 9

1
A log of wood floats in water with of its volume above the surface. What is the density of wood?
5
Solution
4
For a floating body, weight = force of upthrust Þ VBrB.g = [Link] Þ [Link] = V..rW
5

4
Þ rB = × 103 = 0.8 × 103 kg/m3.
5
Illustration 10
A body weighs 160 g in air, 130 g in water and 136 g in oil. What is the specific gravity of oil?
Solution
loss of weight in oil 160-136 24 8
Specific gravity of oil = = = = = 0.8.
loss of weight in water 160-130 30 10
Ill ustration 11
An iceberg is floating partially immersed in sea-water. The density of sea-water is 1.03 g/cm3 and that of ice is
0.92 g/cm3. What is the fraction of the total volume of the iceberg above the level of sea-water ?
Solution
In case of floatation weight = upthrust i.e.
mg = Vinsg or Vrg = Vinsg
r
or Vin = V
s
é rù
so Vout = V – Vin = V ê1 - ú
ë sû
\ The required fraction is,
Vout é rù é 0.92 ù 0.11
or fout = = ê1 - ú = ê1 - ú = 1.03 = 0.106
V ë s û ë 1.03 û
Illustration 12
A piece of ice floats in a liquid. What will happen to the level of liquid after the ice melts completely?
Solution
Consider a liquid of density rL with level A in a beaker. Let a piece of ice of mass m float in the liquid. The
increase in level of the liquid is AB. Suppose VD is the volume of liquid displaced.
Then, weight of the ice = weight of liquid displaced
m
mg = VD rLg or VD =
rL
When the ice gets completely melted, let the level of (liquid + water) be at C. The difference levels A and C is
due to the which got converted into water. Thus if volume of the molten ice (i.e., water) be V0.

m
then, V0 =
rw
Where rw = density of water. Here we consider the following three cases -
(i) If rL > rw then V0 > VD
i.e., the level of (liquid + water) will rise
(ii) If rL < rw then V0 < VD the level of (liquid + water) will come down
(iii) If rL = rw then V0 = VD then the level will remain unchanged.
Illustration 13
A boat carrying a number of large stones is floating in water. What will happen to the water level if the stones
are unloaded into the water ?
Solution
Let M = mass of the boat, m = mass of the stones
For floating condition
weight = upthrust
(M + m) g = VD rw g ; where VD = volume of water displaced

M m
VD = + ... (1)
rw rw

After the stones are unloaded into the water

M
VD1 = ( VD1 = volume of water displaced by boat)
rw
m
VD2 = ( VD2 = volume of water displaced by stones)
rs
M m
\ total volume of water displaced VD ' = VD1 + VD2 = + ...(2)
rw rs
m m
\ > Þ VD > VD ' So the water level will fall.
rw rs