FORM THREE GEOGRAPHY ASSGNMENT

TOPIC FOUR: SOILS.

Definition of soil –kcse 2012

- Soil is a naturally occurring thin layer of loose/ unconsolidated materials which
overlies the crustal rocks and on which plants grow.

Components of Soil –kcse 2019

 Mineral particles/ inorganic matter.
 Humus/ organic matter.
 Water.
 Air.

Ways in which humus contributes to the quality of soil –kcse 2021

 By retaining of moisture.
 By facilitating the aeration of the soil.
 By improving the soil texture.
 By providing mineral matter in soil.
 By providing food for micro-organisms in the soil.
 By binding the soil particles together.
 By improving soil structure.

Soil forming processes/ ways.

 Weathering
 Decomposition of organic matter.
 Leaching.

a.) Through weathering.

- This involves breaking and disintegration of parent rocks through physical and
chemical processes.
- This (weathering) results to regoliths that are further broken into smaller and finer
particles to form soil.

b.) Through decomposition of organic matter.

- This involves the accumulation and decomposition of decaying plants and animal
matter on the ground surface.
- This is done through mineralization and humification.
- Mineralization is the biological and chemical breakdown on dead plant tissues by soil
microorganism to produce simple soluble organic substance.
- Humification involves regrouping of the mineralized materials into large molecules
to form humus.

c.) Through leaching.

- Leaching is the process by which soluble mineral particles are carried in solution
form from one soil layer to the other.

Factors determining soil leaching –kcse 2012

 Nature of soil.
 Solubility of minerals.
 Amount of rainfall/ alternating wet and dry season.
 Nature of the slope.
 Soil leaching processes.
a) Ferralisation/ Laterization (kcse 2006).
- This is where soluble materials are carried from horizon A to horizon B leaving
insoluble minerals that form laterites/ ferrisols on the top layer.

b) Eluviation.
- It is the downward movement of soluble materials from horizon A to horizons B and
C.

c) Illuviation.
- It is the redeposition of soluble materials from horizon B back to horizon A.

d) Podzolization –kcse 2014

- It occurs in areas with high rainfall and low temperatures/ cool and wet conditions/
cool temperate regions/ humid temperate regions/ coniferous forest covered areas.
- Slow decomposition of vegetative matter results in formation of humic acid.
- Minerals such as calcium/ iron/ magnesium/ aluminium/ potassium/salts/bases/
carbonates in the soil are dissolved and moved/ translocated from horizon A to B.
- This leaves the soil extremely acidic/ humic/ ash grey/ light in colour/ grey-brown/
red-yellow/ white.

e) Calcification.
- It is the limited leaching which allows the redeposition of calcium compounds within
the same soil profile.

f) Ribification.
- It is where soils are dehydrated during dry season and leached during the rainy
season.

g) Salinization.
- It is where soils are leached upwards through capillarity depositing salts on the
surface.

Factors influencing soil formation.

i. Parent rock
ii. Climate
iii. Living organisms/ Biotic factors
iv. Relief
v. Time

a.) Parent rock -kcse 2023

- Nature of parent rock determines the mineral composition of the soil.
- Resistant/ hard parent rock result in coarse grained soils/ soft rocks lead to fine
textured soils.
- The minerals in the parent rock determine the soil colour while young.
- The nature of parent rock influences the rate of weathering, in that soft rocks
weather fast while hard rocks weather slowly.
 b.) Climate –kcse 2023
- Rain water influences chemical and physical weathering leading to formation of soils
through rock break up/ decay.
- Rainfall causes leaching resulting to laterite soils.
- High temperatures facilitates chemical/ physical weathering causing faster formation
of soils/ lower temperatures slow down rate of soil formation.
- High temperatures quicken decay forming the organic matter in soils.
- Wind may expose parent rocks to weathering processes/ erode loose soil particles
making them thin.
- Wind/ rain water may deposit light particles that accumulate to form soils.

c.) Living organisms/ Biotic factors –kcse 2012

- Microorganisms in the soil assist in plant/ animal decay to form humus.
- The microorganisms mix and aerate the soils.
- The roots of plants penetrate the soil enabling it to become porous.
- When plants and animals die, they decay to form humus/ organic matter in the soil.
- Burrowing animals/ penetrating plant roots breaks up the rock into small particles
forming soils.

d.) Relief –kcse 2010

- Valley bottoms encourage formation of deep well drained soils due to deposition or
accumulation of weathered materials.
- Steep slopes encourage rapid removal of the top soil thus slowing down soil
formation. They have thin soil or underdeveloped.
- Flat areas may be saturated with water or are waterlogged and this slows down soil
formation.
- Gently sloping areas have well developed soils since they are well drained.

e.) Time –kcse 2017

- Where soil formation processes take a short duration, the soils are generally
immature.
- Where soil formation processes has taken a long period of time, soils are generally
well developed or mature.
- Young soils retain the characteristics of the parent rock since they have not been
exposed to factors that may cause change.
- Mature soils may not display the characteristics of the parent rock.

Properties of soil –kcse 2023

i. Soil structure
ii. Soil texture
iii. Soil colour
iv. Soil porosity
v. Soil permeability
vi. Soil acidity/ alkalinity

a.) Soil texture –kcse 2017

- This is the degree of fineness or coarseness of the particles making up the soil.
- It is the size of the soil particles.
- The texture controls the size and spacing of the soil pores/ soil aeration.
- This affects the soil water content/ the drainage/ leaching.
 Importance of Soil Texture –kcse 2022
 It influences the ease of plant root penetration into the soil.
 It regulates the soil water content.
 It controls aeration of the soil.
 It controls the availability and retention of nutrients within the soil.
 It controls the size and spacing of pores in the soil.

Types of soils by texture –kcse 2022

i. Sandy soils.
 Have high permeability because of large particles.
 Well aerated.
 Low mineral nutrients due to leaching.
 Low water content.
 Easy to cultivate.
 Ideal for horticulture.

ii. Clay soils.

 Very fine soil particles.
 Retain a lot of water i.e. are waterlogged.
 Contain little air.
 Rich in nutrients and organic matter.
 Difficult to cultivate.
 When dry, the surface becomes hard and concrete like.
 Ideal for paddy rice.

iii. Loamy soils.

 Consists of medium soil particles.
 High organic matter.
 Ideal for agriculture.
 Consists of a mixture of sandy, silty and clay particles.

iv. Silt soils.

 Medium size particles.
 High water content.
 High organic matter.

b.) Soil structure –kcse 2017

- Soil structure is the way the individual soil particles are arranged into aggregate
compound particles.

Types of soil structure.

 Crumb soil structure.
 Granular soil structure.
 Plate soil structure.
 Prismatic soil structure.
 Blocky soil structure.
 Columnar soil structure.
 Importance of soil structure.
 It influences the rate at which soil absorbs and retains water.
 It determines soil stability.
 It determines the degree of soil aeration.
 It contributes to soil fertility as well as plant growth as it facilitate root penetration by
plants.
 It influences the activities of microorganisms in the soil.
 It determines the ease with which a soil can be cultivated.
 It describes the characteristics of soils in terms of appearance and physical properties.

c.) Soil acidity.

- It is the high concentration of hydrogen ions in the soil solution.
- It is reduced by adding lime (calcium hydroxide) to the soil.

Significance of soil acidity.

 It reduces the rate at which bacteria decompose organic matters.
 It reduces the rate at which roots absorb minerals.
 It also determines the chemical environment in which plants grow.
 It also determines conditions under which microorganisms live.

d.) Soil colour- kcse 2017

- Soils have different colours influenced by parent rock/ vegetation/ leaching processes.
- Black/ dark brown soils denote a lot of humus.
- Grey soils are characteristics of poorly drained/ water logged soils.
- Whitish soils show high concentration of salts.
- Reddish soils have high concentration of iron.

Factors determining the soil colour –kcse 2006

 The type of parent rock.
 The amount of organic matter or humus.
 The chemical composition/ degree of concentration of minerals.
 The amount of water in the soil/ the drainage of the soil.

e.) Soil porosity- kcse 2017

- This is the amount of pore spaces in the soil.
- The size of the pore spaces determine the water flowing in the soil/ sandy soils have
high porosity hence allow water to pass through / clay soils have many pores hence
retain water.

f.) Soil permeability.

- This refers to the movement of water in the soil. It depends on the soil texture i.e. fine
textured soils are impermeable.

Soil depth.
- This is the mass of a unit volume of dry soil/ the amount of dry soil overlying a parent
rock.
- Soil depth is influenced by the following factors;
 Nature of the bed-rock/ the ease with which it weathers.
 The length of time the soil has taken to form.
 The vegetation cover existing in the area.
  The climate of the place.
 The rate of weathering of the mineral matter.

Soil profile –kcse 2022

- This is the vertical arrangement of the soil into layers/ horizons from the surface to
the bedrock.

Horizon A/ Top soil

- Uppermost layer.
- Rich in humus.
- Leaching takes place here.
- Contains plant roots and micro-organisms.

Horizon B/ Sub-soil –kcse 2010

- Found below the topsoil.
- An accumulation zone for leached minerals from horizon A.
- Mainly made up of inorganic materials.
- The soil texture is clay in nature.
- Soils are red/ brown in colour.
- The zone sometimes forms the hard pan/ murram.
- Subdivided into B1, B2 and B3.
- It is illuviation zone.

Horizon C/ Partly weathered materials.

- Has weathered rocks.
- Very low content of organic matter.
- Deepest layer.
- No accumulated leached materials.

Horizon D/ Parent rock/ Bed rock.

- This is the solid underlying rock.
- Forms the basis of soil formation.
- Rocks have not undergone weathering.

NOTE: The development of soil profile is determined by the following processes:

Podzolization, Calcification, Ferralization, Desilication, Salinization, Solodization and
Gleization.
 Factors used to identify the layers of a soil profile.
 Soil colour.
 Soil texture.
 Soil porosity.
 Chemical/ mineral composition.
 Soil thickness.

Factors influencing the development of a soil profile.

 Climatic elements e.g. rainfall and temperature.
 Vegetation cover.
 Drainage.
 Length of time taken for the soil to develop parent rock.
 Leaching process.
 Gradient of the slope.

Soil Catena –kcse 2022

- Soil catena is the sequence of different soils down a slope.

Zone A
- Laterite soils.
- Red in colour/ heavily leached.
- Acidic.
- Rich in iron and aluminium oxides.
- Have low humus content/ organic matter.
- Have developed soil profile.
- Are mature soil.
- Are of low agricultural value.

Zone B
- Soils are very thin because of high rates of erosion.

Zone C
- Well drained mature soils.
- Thick soils.
 Zone D
- Peat/ Bog soils.
- Poorly drained/ waterlogged.
- Grey/ Blue in colour.
- Are acidic.
- Have poorly developed soil profile.

Factors influencing development of a soil catena.

a.) Relief.
- The top and bottom of the hill/ mountain must be gently sloping while the side should
have a steep slope.

b.) Drainage.
- The rate of water percolation should be more on gentle slopes than on steep slope.

c.) Leaching.
- There should be soluble minerals to be carried to the lower horizons.

d.) Transportation of soil particles/ debris.

- Materials has to be moved from steep slopes to lower slopes.

Soil Degeneration.
- Also called soil degradation/ deterioration/ impoverishment.
- It means the loss of soil fertility.
- It is the decline in the quality and productivity of soil due to both natural and human
causes.

Types of soil degeneration –kcse 2013

 Physical degeneration.
 Biological degeneration.
 Chemical degeneration.

1. Physical degeneration is the decline in the usefulness of the soil due to changes in its
physical properties like soil texture, structure and moisture content. It is due to the
following causes;
 Poor land-use practices such as overgrazing.
 Excessive soil erosion due to heavy rainfall.
 Drought.
 Over-cultivation.
 Use of heavy farm machines.

2. Biological degeneration is the decline in the usefulness of the soil due to change in
the organic content of the soil. It is due to the following causes;
 Overgrazing.
 Deforestation.
 Burning of land.
 Soil water-logging.
 Prolonged drought.
3. Chemical degeneration is the decline in the usefulness of a soil due to change in the
soil pH and mineral composition of soil. It is due to the following causes;
 Monoculture.
 Over-cropping.
 Excessive or wrong application of fertilizers.
 Excessive leaching.
 Excessive drought also leads to accumulation of salts in the top soil.

Causes of soil degeneration –kcse 2019

 Soil erosion interferes with soil structure leading to loss of top productive soil.
 Excessive drought leads to accumulation of salts in the top soil making it saline.
 Leaching due to heavy rainfall can lead to percolation of soil nutrients to the lower
horizons leading to deficiency of the top soil.
 Excessive/ wrong application of fertilizer may affect the soil pH making it too
acidic interfering with soil micro-organisms.
 Poor agricultural practices like burning of land/ over cultivation/ monoculture/ over
cropping cause soil to be deficient in some mineral nutrients leading to loss of soil
fertility.
 Other human activities like quarrying/ construction of roads interfere with soil
structure leading to soil degeneration.
 Mass wasting e.g. landslide may bring sub-soil to the top causing soil degeneration.

Soil Erosion.
- This is the removal of the top soil by the action of moving water, wind, glaciers, mass
movements and human activities.

Agents of soil erosion.

 Moving water.
 Wind.
 Animals.
 Glacier.
 Mass movement.
 People.

Types of soil erosion –kcse 2019

 Splash erosion.
 Rill erosion.
 Gulley erosion.
 Sheet erosion.
 Wind erosion.

a.) Splash Erosion.

- This is caused by heavy and sudden rainstorms that hit and loosens unconsolidated
particles of soil on the earth’s surface
- The impact of the heavy drops throws away or splashes the soil particles

b.) Rill Erosion.

- The rain water cuts small channels called rills as it flows over the surface.
- It is most prevalent when rainfall exceeds the rate of infiltration.
c.) Gulley Erosion.
- Moving water or glaciers on the earth surface may cut deep and large channels
through widening the existing rills.

d.) Sheet Erosion.

- This is the uniform removal of the top soil by rainwater moving downslope
immediately after heavy downpour occurs in a flat area.

e.) Wind erosion.

- Prevailing winds may carry fine soil particles away and deposit them elsewhere.

Causes of soil erosion.

i.) Nature of the slope i.e. steep slopes accelerate erosion while gentle slopes experience
less erosion.

ii.) Nature of the soil texture i.e. areas with volcanic ash (fine textured soils) are
vulnerable to soil erosion.

iii.) Mass wasting especially landslides and soil creep accelerate soil erosion.

iv.) Climatic conditions i.e. heavy rainfall accelerate erosion. Eddy currents of wind
during dry season causes wind erosion.

v.) Human activities i.e. kcse 2001

 Monoculture/ over-cropping lead to soil exhaustion thus making the soil
vulnerable to erosion –kcse 2006
 Continuous ploughing weakens the soil structure making it easy for agents of
erosion to carry it away- kcse 2010
 Overstocking leads to trampling on the top soil by animals making them easy
to be carried away by agents of erosion.
 Overgrazing reduces vegetation cover thus exposing the soil to agents of
erosion –kcse 2010
 Ploughing across the contour/ up and down the slope creates channels
which encourage easy removal of soil by running water/ agents of erosion.
 Shifting cultivation/ Bush fallowing may leave land abandoned or
unprotected against erosion.
 Deforestation and burning of vegetation exposes the soil to agents of
erosion –kcse 2006
 Cultivation of crops on steep slopes/ along river banks increases soil
erosion process.
 Continuous application of fertilizer –kcse 2006
 Road construction/ quarrying/ mining loosens the soils making them easily
eroded.
 Effects of Soil Erosion –kcse 2017
 It leads to loss of productive top soil lowering agricultural productivity of land.
 It causes uprooting/ blowing away of plants/ plants are washed away/ buried.
 It causes destruction of buildings/ bridges.
 Gulley erosion exposes underground water lowering the water table.
 It leads to destruction of vegetation cover which can cause desertification.
 It causes deposition of sediments into water reservoirs thus requiring dredging which
is expensive.
 Contaminated sediments deposited into water bodies lead to water pollution.
 Sediments brought by water erosion to the beaches may make them muddy.
 It causes land dereliction.
 Sand eroded from steep slopes is deposited on the river beds and can be harvested for
building and construction.
 During soil erosion, deep soils may be deposited e.g. alluvium that create productive
lands for agricultural production.
 Eroded alluvial deposits on river beds make the river channel shallower resulting into
frequent flooding.

QUIZ: Explain three effects of soil erosion on water sources (6mks).

 When the eroded soil is deposited into water reservoirs, it leads to siltation of the
reservoirs reducing the volume of water.
 The eroded soil may contain pollutants like agricultural chemicals and industrial
effluents which may contaminate water sources.
 When eroded soil accumulate in the water reservoirs making them shallow and
eventually plants may colonize them forming swamps.
 Accumulation of eroded soils into river valleys makes the river shallow and this may
lead to frequent flooding since river valleys cannot hold more water.
 When eroded soils accumulate in river valleys, they may block the path of the water
forming a lake on the upstream side of the barrier.
 Siltation caused by deposition of eroded soil onto the river bed may make river
shallow and unsuitable for navigation.

Classification of Soils according to soil order –kcse 2023

 Zonal order soils.
 Intrazonal order soils.
 Azonal order soils.

1) Zonal order soil –kcse 2019

- These are mature soils that have undergone long time of soil formation/ have a well-
developed soil profile.
- They include;
 Podzol soils.
 Podzolic soils.
 Tundra soils.
 Latosols.
 Pedocals- Subdivided into Chernozems and Vertizols.
 Phenozems.
 Sierozems/ Desert soils.
 Characteristics of Desert soils –kcse 2012
 The soils are of sandy or stony texture.
 Contain little or no humus.
 Are saline or contain a lot of salts.
 They have high lime content.
 Lack moisture.
 Are highly porous.
 May be light coloured.
 Are thin or shallow.
 Do not have a distinct profile.

2) Intrazonal order soils –kcse 2019

- These are soils that are formed under poor drainage conditions/ waterlogged areas.
- They include;
 Hydromorphic soils.
 Halmorphic soils.
 Calcimorphic soils.
 Andosols.

3) Azonal order soils–kcse 2019

- These are young soils that have not been affected by soil forming processes/ they do
not have a well-developed soil profile/ they are immature and skeletal.
- They include;
 Lithosols.
 Regosols.
 Alluvial soils.
 Mountain soils.
 Histosols.
 Arenosols.

Significance of Soils –kcse 2023

 Soil is a medium through which natural vegetation and crops grow.
 Some soils e.g. clay is used in making ceramics/ pottery/ brick making.
 Soil may contain valuable minerals.
 Some soils are used for road construction/ laying foundation to structures.
 Some soils are consumed by livestock/ human beings.
 Organic soils like peat serve as fuel resources.
 Some soils have medicinal values.
 Some soils are used for decorative purposes e.g. red ochre.

Management and conservation of soil.

1. Soil management.
- These are measures undertaken to control processes and activities that can lead to soil
degeneration.

Measures of soil management.

 Building of dykes and embakments.
 Construction of drainage ditches or channels.
 Control of soil erosion.
 Application of manure or chemical fertilizers.
  Application of lime to raise soil pH level.
 Draining water logged soils/ flooded areas.

2. Soil conservation.
- These are measures undertaken to protect the soil from destruction.

Measures of soil conservation.

 Contour ploughing.
 Terracing.
 Planting cover crops.
 Regulation of livestock.
 Crop rotation.
 Mixed farming.
 Afforestation and reafforestation.
 Fallowing.
 Strip cropping.
 Building check dams.

Kcse 2014: State three ways in which mulching helps in soil conservation.
 Plant materials used decompose increasing soil humus.
 It protects the soil against erosion.
 It helps to increase infiltration rate of water into the soil.
 It helps reduce water loss from the soil/ retains soil moisture.
 It increases soil aeration.

“END OF TOPIC FOUR”

TOPIC FIVE: AGRICULTURE.

Definition:-2013

 Agriculture is the practice of cultivating crops and rearing of livestock.

Factors Influencing Agriculture

1. Physical Factors.

a) Climate

 Different crops require varying limits of rainfall, humidity and temperature.

 Moderate to high temperatures influences the growth of variety of crops and
rearing of a variety of animals.
 Moderate to high rainfall/well distributed rainfall throughout the year support
agriculture.
 Strong winds accelerate evaporation/transpiration and also destroy crops.
 Winds enhance seed dispersal and pollination favouring crop growing.

b) Relief

 Gently sloping/undulating landscape favours crop growing and animal rearing.

 Low to high altitude support the growth of a variety of crops and rearing of
different animals.

c) Soil

 Deep, well drained, volcanic/clay/loam soils support crop growing and growth of
pasture for animals.

2. Biotic factors.

 The presence of and/or absence of parasitic plants, insects, pests and diseases largely
influence the type of agriculture.
 Insects like bees are useful for pollination of crops.
 Pests like termites, locusts and armyworms destroys plants.
 Pests like ticks and Tse tse flies transmit diseases to livestock which may cause
animal death.
3. Human factors.

a) Social factors –kcse 2014

i. Traditions-kcse 2020
 The traditions of people determine the types of crops grown/livestock kept in
order to help them meet their food requirements.
 Traditions determines the amount/type of labour hence the size of land
farmed/crops/livestock kept.
  Traditional tools/technology/knowledge limit or encourage crop/livestock
production.

ii. Land tenure system-kcse 2020

 It allows/limits communities/individuals to use the available land leading to
increase/decrease produce.
 It may lead to land fragmentation/consolidation reducing/increasing land for
large scale farming.

iii. Religious beliefs-kcse 2020

 Some religious beliefs determine the type of livestock farming since they
discourage/encourage rearing of certain animals.
 Some religious groups are vegetarians hence promote vegetable
production/limiting livestock production.

iv. Gender influences productivity as the produce will depend on effort of the gender
involved.

v. The interaction between people leads to adoption of new techniques in farming/new

foods/crops.

b) Economic Factors.

i. Operational cost- cost of growing crops and rearing animals.

ii. Marketing expenses- cost of storage and transport to the market.
iii. Price fluctuation- low international commodity prices may lower morale of farmers.

c) Political Factors.

i. Government policy. Some countries encourage productivity and efficiency by

guaranteed prices and subsidies to farmers.
ii. International agreements which ensure that production does not greatly exceed
demand.
TYPES OF AGRICULTURE.
1. Arable farming
2. Mixed farming
3. Livestock farming

1. Arable Farming

 This is the growing of crops.

Types of Arable farming.
a) Simple subsistence farming
b) Plantation agriculture
a. Simple subsistence farming/Shifting cultivation.

 It involves growing of food crops for family consumption.

Characteristics of shifting cultivation –kcse 2008

 Vegetation is cleared by slashing and burning.

 There is the use of little or no manure.
 The land is communally owned.
 The yields decline after a certain period of continuous use/ The land is abandoned
when the yield decline.
 Both settlements and plots are temporary.
 Farming depends mainly on family labour.
 The farmers use simple implements.
 It is mainly for subsistence.
 Plots are small and scattered.
 The siting of the land is in virgin forests.

Disadvantages of shifting cultivation

 Exposes land to soil erosion on the plots which have been left fallow.
 Doesn’t guarantee sufficient food production.
 Extensive destruction of vegetation when fires get out of control.
 Wasteful because sections of land stay fallow for a very long time.
 Only practicable in areas with sparse population and plenty of land.
 There are hardly any monetary gains because the produce is only enough for home
consumption.
Types of simple subsistence farming.

i) Sedentary Subsistence Agriculture

 Farming in which the community permanently stays in one place.

 Areas where it’s practiced
Tropical lowlands of Africa, Central America and South East Asia.

Characteristics of sedentary subsistence agriculture.

 The community occupies a permanent dwelling place.
 Fallowed lands are frequently used.
 Crop rotation is practiced in some areas.
 Crops sown are given much attention.
 More animals are kept e.g. oxen and horses.
 Both cash crops and subsistence crops are grown.
 Manure is used in the farms.
 More family labour is used in the field.
 Production is relatively large.
 i) Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

 It involves maximum utilization of all cultivable land to sustain a large and fast-
growing population.
 In kenya, intensive cultivation is carried out in counties like Kiambu, Thika, Nyeri,
Kisii, Nyamira and Vihiga.

Characteristics of intensive subsistence agriculture.

 Very small plots resulting from years of fragmentation.

 Intensive use of land.
 It is labour intensive.
 Simple tools are used.
 Both food and cash crops are grown.
 Several crops are grown on the same piece of land during the course of the year.
 Livestock rearing is practiced in small number.
 Use of manure and chemical fertilizers to sustain high soil fertility for maximum
yields.
 Use of Irrigation to make up inadequacy of moisture.

b. Plantation Agriculture.

 Cultivation of one cash crop on large tract of land called estates or plantations.
 Main plantation crops are coffee, tea, pineapples, maize, wheat, sunflower, sisal,
sugar-cane
 Main plantations countries are Cameroon, Ghana, Kenya, Cote d’Ivore, Nigeria,
Indonensia, Phillipines, Brazil and Colombia.

Characteristics of plantations Agriculture –kcse 2013

 Large tracts of land are cultivated.

 Cash crops are grown e.g. coffee, tea, cocoa rubber, etc.
 A single crop is usually grown.
 Done for commercial purpose.
 High capital is required to start and meet recurrent expenditure.
 Production is high in quality and quantity.
 Soil gets exhausted due to monoculture
 Some farms are labour intensive.
 Plantations provide their workers with social amenities.
 Most plantations are owned by foreign companies/individuals/companies.
 Employment of scientific management to produce a lot of output.
 Plantations are seriously affected by price reduction in the world market.
 Problems facing plantation farming in Kenya- kcse 2020
 Excess rainfall/prolonged drought leads to low yield.
 Occurrence of pest/disease affects crops leading to loss/low yields.
 Soil exhaustion due to practice of monoculture.
 Plantation farming is costly since it requires a lot of money to operate/limited
capital.
 Price fluctuation in the world market.
 Poor management of group owned plantations/Delayed payments.
 Fire outbreaks
 Competition from imports.
 Hailstones
 Rapid growth of weeds
 The muddy/impassable roads

2. Mixed farming- kcse 2010

 It is the growing of crops and rearing of livestock on the same farm.

Characteristics of mixed farming

 Crops are grown and livestock raised on the same farm.
 Farms are moderate in size.
 A variety of crops are grown e.g. wheat, barley, oats, tobacco, sugar beet etc
 A portion of the farm may be reserved for animal pasture.
 It requires large capital.

 The ratio of animals reared to the crops grown depend on the following factors:
 Soil fertility
 The market demands
 The land carrying capacity
 The government policy
 The tradition of farming
 The market price on crops and animal products.

CROP FARMING IN KENYA

i. Cereals e.g. maize, wheat, rice, sorghum, millet

ii. Beverage crops e.g. coffee, tea
iii. Industrial crops e.g. pyrethrum, tobacco, fruits, sugarcane
iv. Fibre crops e.g. sisal, cotton
v. Oil producing crops e.g. sunflower, groundnuts, coconut
vi. Root crops e.g. irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, carrots, cassava
vii. Vegetables e.g. French beans, kale, cabbages, cucumber
 TEA FARMING IN KENYA

Varieties of tea planted:

 Assamic tea
 Aswan tea
 China tea
 Purple tea
 Cambod tea

Major Growing Areas

 To the west of the Rift valley – Kericho, Nandi, Kakamega, Cherangani hills, Kisii,
Nyamira.
 To the East of the rift valley(2007) – Nyeri, Murang`a, Kiambu, Thika, Maragua,,
Nyambane hills in Meru
 In lowlands areas- Kakamega, vihiga

Physical factors favouring Tea growing in kenya-kcse 2013

 Moderate to high temperatures.
 Moderate to high rainfall.
 Well distributed rainfall throughout the year.
 Deep, well drained, volcanic/slightly acidic soils.
 Gently sloping/undulating land.

Human factors favouring Tea growing in Kenya.

 The large supply of labour from the local people for cultivation and processing
which are labour intensive.
 Accessible roads to deliver tea leaves to factory before they start withering.
 Location of tea factories near farms for quick processing of tea as soon as possible.
 The large capital from cooperatives to pay for the labour required in land
preparation, planting, regular picking etc.
 The advanced technology in tea farming from the local people/expatriates.
 Advanced scientific research in tea farming/ pests and diseases that affect tea
crops.
 The large and ready internal or external market for tea.
 The government policy on diversification of crops has led to tea growing.

Tea cultivation from Land preparation to harvesting-kcse 2007

 The land is cleared of vegetation.

 Land is ploughed/tilled using tractors.
 The seedlings/cuttings are planted in nursery.
 Tea seedlings are then transplanted onto ploughed land.
 The plants are weeded manually.
 Manure is applied regularly.
 Spraying is done to control pests/diseases.
 Pruning is done to control heights.
 Harvesting is done by hand picking the two top leaves and buds.
 Green leaves are transported by Lorries in airy baskets to the factory for processing.

Tea Processing
 At the factory tea leaves are weighed.
 Tea leaves are spread out on long wire trays.
 Tea leaves are dried/withered by blasting of warm air underneath the trays.
 Dry leaves are passed through a set of rollers to chop them.
 Chopped leaves are placed in containers for fermenting.
 Fermented leaves are roasted to turn to black tea.
 The tea is given time to cool.
 The cooled tea is sifted, graded and then packed in tea chests or bags to await sale
or exportation.

Marketing of Tea in Kenya-kcse 2013

 Major marketer is Kenya Tea Development Authority(KTDA)
 Some tea is sold through factory door sales.
 Some tea is sold directly to local/overseas buyers.
 Some tea is sold to Kenya Tea Packers Limited(KETEPA)/other packers.
 Some tea is sold through Mombasa tea auction.

Leading consumers of Kenyan tea.

 France Iran Britain
 Germany Saudia arabia United Kingdom
 Netherlands Egypt USA
 Afghanistan Sudan Canada

Functions of KTDA

 Collection of tea from buying centres.

 Processing of tea.
 Providing farmers with inputs such as fertiliser.
 Sensitizes farmers on high quality production of tea.
 Facilitates sale of tea at best possible prices.
 Ensures prompt collection of payment from all tea buyers.
 Promotion of tea with the aim of expanding market share.
Ways in which KTDA assists small scale tea farmers in Kenya-kcse 2007

 It conducts research on diseases/pests/improved tea for higher yields/better quality

tea.
 It organizes farmer education days/provides extension services for the farmers to
learn new ideas about tea growing.
 It establishes tea factories where the green tea leaves are processed.
 It subsidizes farm inputs lowering cost of production.
 It improves feeder roads to ease transportation of green leaves to the tea factories.
 It establishes tea nurseries from where tea farmers buy tea seedlings.
 It provides credit facilities for the farmers enabling them to purchase farm inputs
promptly.
 It collects the green tea leaves and delivers to the factory on behalf of the farmers.
 It undertakes the marketing of tea on behalf of the farmers.

Problems facing small scale tea farming in Kenya-kcse 2013

 Pests like red spider weevils and beetles destroy tea plants reducing quality/yields
leading to low income for farmers.
 Diseases like Ammilaria, root rot, black tea thrip, tea blight destroy tea plants
reducing the yields leading to low income for farmers.
 Climatic hazards/Droughts/Hail stones/Frost leads to destruction of the crop thus
lowering quality/quantity of leaf production.
 Fluctuations of tea prices in the world market leads to uncertainity earnings
making it difficult for farmers to plan ahead.
 Inaccessible roads lead to delays in collection of the harvested tea resulting into
wastage/losses to farmers.
 High cost of farm inputs makes them unaffordable to the farmers leading to low
yields/low profit margins.
 Inadequate capital from cooperatives to purchase inputs lower production.
 Delayed payment to the farmers by cooperatives lowers their morale.
 Poor marketing strategies leads to low earnings.
 Mismanagement of cooperatives leads to low payment to farmers which lowers
their morale.

Significance of Tea Farming in Kenya

 Tea is exported therefore earns foreign exchange used to develop other sectors of
economy.
 Tea is consumed locally saving some foreign exchange that would be used to import
tea.
 Farmers sell tea locally earning income improving their living standards.
 It creates employment opportunities such as for people working in farms and
factories which improves their standards of living.
 Tea is a raw material for industries leading to development of industries such as
processing factories, blending and packaging industries.
 Tea farming has led to development of feeder roads that eases movement of
goods/increasing volume of trade.
 Tea farming has led to development of towns such as Kericho which are centre for
economic activity.
 It earns Kenya a lot of revenue through taxation/licenses.
 It leads to development of social amenities in tea growing areas improving the
living standards of people.

SUGAR-CANE FARMING IN KENYA

Main Growing Areas

 Nyanza: Muhoroni, Miwani, Chemilil, Koru, Kibos and Awendo.

 Coastal: Ramisi.
 Western: Mumias, Nzoia, Kabras, Busia

Physical conditions Favouring Sugarcane growing in Kenya- kcse 2023

 High temperatures/ moderate to high temperatures.

 High rainfall.
 Well distributed rainfall throughout the year.
 Dry/ sunny conditions for sucrose accumulation.
 Deep, well drained, loamy/black cotton/clay soils.
 Gently sloping/undulating land which enables mechanization.

Human conditions favouring sugarcane growing in Kenya.

 The large supply of labour from the local people for cultivation and processing
which are labour intensive.
 Accessible roads to deliver sugar canes to factory before they start withering.
 Location of sugarcane factories near farms for quick processing of canes as soon as
possible.
 The large capital from cooperatives to pay for the labour required in land
preparation, planting, harvesting etc.
 The advanced technology in sugarcane farming from the local people/expatriates.
 Advanced scientific research in sugarcane farming/ pests and diseases that affect
sugarcane crops.
 The large and ready internal or external market for sugar.
 The government policy on diversification of crops has led to sugarcane growing.
 Sugarcane cultivation from Land preparation to harvesting-kcse 2008
 The land is cleared off its vegetation.
 The land is ploughed using tractors.
 Shallow furrows are dug.
 Cuttings/seed cane are planted in the furrows.
 Top dressing/Nitrogenous fertilizers are applied.
 Weeding is regularly done.
 Spraying using herbicides is applied.
 Gapping is done in initial stages.
 Sugarcane is harvested manually using pangas and put in heaps.
 Harvested cane is loaded onto tracks/lorries, transported to the factory for processing.

Processing of Sugarcane-kcse 2015/2023

 The cane is received at the factory and weighed.

 The cane is washed and chopped into small pieces.
 The pieces are crushed to extract the juice.
 The juice is put into clarifiers to filter off the impurities.
 The juice is boiled to evaporate the water.
 The juice is further stirred in large tanks to allow crystallization.
 The crystals are separated from molasses.
 The sugar is bleached to whiten.
 Sugar is then dried, cooled, graded, weighed and packed ready for sale/export.

Marketing of Sugar

 Consumed locally.
 Factories sell to wholesalers and retail outlets to consumers.


Uses of Sugar.

 Brown sugar is used in baking to sweeten bread, cakes, etc.

 Sugar is used in sweetening foods and drinks e.g. porridge, chapatti, tea, coffee, etc.
 Sugar is used to make local brews.
 White Sugar is used in soft drinks industries e.g. soda, juice, etc.
 White Sugar is used in Making sweets and chocolates, etc.
 Sugar is used in manufacturing of drugs e.g. syrups and sugar coated tablets.

By-products obtained from sugarcane processing-kcse 2015/2023

 Bagasse
 Molasses
 Cane juice
  Filter cake/filter mud
 Jaggery
 Ethanol/ alcohol

Uses of By-products

 Molasses is used as a sweetener for livestock feeds.

 Molasses is also used to manufacture ethanol, acetone and ethyl-acetate.
 Bagasse or fibre left after squeezing the juice is used as fuel for boilers,
 Bagasse is used for preparing pulp for making paper used for making cement and
fertilizer bags
 Bagasse is also used as manure, fodder, wax.
 Filter cake resulting from filtration process is used as manure for cane.

Roles of the Out grower schemes.

Out grower scheme is a partnership on contract between the farmers and a company.

 Providing extension services to farmers.

 Giving farmers selected seeds for planting.
 Providing fertilizers to farmers.
 Managing local sugar cane processing factories.
 Helping small scale farmers to grow and sell their canes to the factories.
 Increasing sugar cane production to meet the local needs.
 Constructing and maintaining access roads to the farmers.
 Providing credit facilities to farmers to improve their farms.
 Provision of tractors for ploughing and paying labour.

Ways in which Kenya Government is promoting the sugar manufacturing industry-kcse

2023

 Establishment of Kenya Sugar Board to advice on production/marketing of sugar.

 Restricting sugar imports to protect farmers from the flooding of the market with
cheap sugar.
 Establishing a scheme for small scale out growers in production/marketing of sugar.
 Enforcing laws to protect the exploitation of farmers by brokers/ middlemen.
 Financing research on diseases/pests/improved sugarcane for higher yields/better
quality sugar.
 Providing financial assistance to ailing sugar factories.
 Organizing farmer education days/provides extension services for the farmers to
learn new ideas about sugarcane growing.
 Establishing sugar factories where the canes are processed.
 Subsidizing farm inputs to lower the cost of sugarcane production.
 Improving feeder roads to ease transportation of canes to the sugar factories.
 Providing credit facilities for the farmers enabling them to purchase farm inputs
promptly.

Problems Facing Sugarcane Farming In Kenya-kcse 2008/2023

 Pests like termites, white grub destroy sugarcane plants reducing quality/yields
leading to low income for the farmers.
 Diseases like sugarcane mosaic, smut, yellow wilt, ratoon stunting destroy
sugarcane plants reducing the quality/yields leading to low income for farmers.
 Frequent fire outbreaks which destroy sugarcane hence losses.
 Climatic hazards/Droughts leads to destruction of the sugarcane crop leading to
heavy losses.
 Fluctuations of sugar prices in the world market leads to uncertainity earnings
making it difficult for farmers to plan ahead.
 Inaccessible roads lead to delays in delivery of the canes to the factory lowering the
quality/profit to farmers.
 High cost of farm inputs makes them unaffordable to the farmers leading to low
yields/low profit margins.
 Delayed payment to the farmers by cooperatives lowers their morale.
 Mismanagement of cooperatives leads to low payment to farmers which lowers
their morale.
 Labour shortage during harvesting
 Delays in harvesting of sugarcane disrupt farmer’s planning/reducing farmers’
earnings.

Significance of sugarcane Farming in Kenya

 Sugar is exported therefore earns foreign exchange used to develop other sectors of
economy.
 Sugar is consumed locally saving some foreign exchange that would be used to
import tea.
 Farmers sell sugars locally earning income improving their living standards.
 It creates employment opportunities such as for people working in farms and
factories which improves their standards of living.
 Sugar is a raw material for industries leading to development of industries such as
processing factories, blending and packaging industries.
 Sugarcane farming has led to development of feeder roads that eases movement of
goods/increasing volume of trade.
 Tea farming has led to development of towns such as Mumias which are centre for
economic activity.
 It earns Kenya a lot of revenue through taxation/licenses.
 It leads to development of social amenities in sugarcane growing areas improving
the living standards of people.
 MAIZE FARMING IN KENYA

Main Growing Areas

 Trans nzoia
 Nakuru
 Bungoma
 Uasin Gishu county

Physical conditions favouring Maize Growing in Kenya-kcse 2009

 Moderate to high temperatures.

 Moderate to high rainfall.
 Well distributed rainfall throughout the year.
 Deep, well drained, volcanic/loam soils.
 Gently sloping/undulating landscape.
 Plenty of sunshine during harvesting.

Human conditions for maize growing in kenya.

 The large supply of labour from the local people for cultivation and processing
which are labour intensive.
 Accessible roads to deliver maize to the mills or market.
 Large storage facilities for harvested maize.
 The large capital from cooperatives to pay for the labour required in land
preparation, planting, harvesting etc.
 The advanced technology in maize farming from the local people/expatriates.
 Advanced scientific research in maize farming/ pests and diseases that affect maize
crops.
 The large and ready internal or external market for maize.
 The government policy on diversification of crops has led to maize growing.

Maize cultivation from Land preparation to harvesting

 The land is cleared of its vegetation.
 The land is ploughed using tractors.
 Holes are dug in rows.
 Maize seeds are planted in the holes.
 Fertilizers are applied during planting.
 Gapping and thinning is done.
 Weeding is done manually/spraying is done to control pests/diseases.
 Nitrogen fertilizers are added.
 The dry cobs are picked by hand and put in sacks transported to the millers.
 Marketing of Maize

 Mainly sold by National Cereals and produce Board(NCPB)

 Farmers also sell directly to consumers and millers.

Uses of Maize

 Maize grains are grounded and used as food Grains are also used in the manufacture
of animal feeds e.g. maize jam.
 Tender maize plants are chopped and mixed with molasses to make silage for
livestock.
 Green maize grain is used to make salad oil for cooking, industrial alcohol and starch.
 Stalks and cobs are used as organic manure
 Dry cobs and stalks are used to provide domestic fuel.

Problems facing maize farming in Kenya-kcse 2009

 Pests like weevils, rodents, birds, beetles destroy maize plants reducing yields
leading to low income for farmers.
 Diseases like root rot, leaf rust destroy maize plants reducing the yields leading to
low income for farmers.
 Climatic hazards/Drought leads to destruction of the crop thus lowering
quality/quantity of maize production.
 Fluctuations of maize prices in the market leads to uncertainity earnings making it
difficult for farmers to plan ahead.
 Inaccessible roads lead to delays in delivery of maize to millers or market resulting
into wastage/losses to farmers.
 High cost of farm inputs makes them unaffordable to the farmers leading to low
yields/low profit margins.
 Inadequate capital from cooperatives to purchase inputs lower production.
 Delayed payment to the farmers by cooperatives lowers their morale.
 Poor marketing strategies leads to low earnings.
 Mismanagement of cooperatives leads to low payment to farmers which lowers
their morale.

Kcse 2023: State three reasons for the increase in the price of maize in Kenya.
 Adverse climate conditions/ prolonged drought experienced leading to low maize
production.
 Prevalence of pests like army worms, locusts/ diseases like maize rust, smut.
 High demand for maize/ competition for maize as a raw material in manufacturing
industries.
 A rise in the cost of inputs/ increased cost of production.
 Reduction in land acreage under which maize is planted.
 Global rise in food prices.
 Restrictions in importation of maize.
 Hoarding.

Significance of Maize Farming in Kenya

 Maize is exported therefore earns foreign exchange used to develop other sectors of
economy.
 Maize is consumed locally saving some foreign exchange that would be used to
import maize.
 Farmers sell maize locally earning income improving their living standards.
 It creates employment opportunities such as for people working in farms and millers
which improves their standards of living.
 Maize is a raw material for industries leading to development of industries such as
processing factories and packaging industries.
 Maize farming has led to development of feeder roads that eases movement of
goods/increasing volume of trade.
 Maize farming has led to development of towns such as Kitale which are centre for
economic activity.
 It earns Kenya a lot of revenue through taxation/licenses.
 It leads to development of social amenities in maize growing areas improving the
living standards of people.

COCOA GROWING IN GHANA

Main Growing Areas

 Cocoa triangle formed by Accra, Kumasi and Takoradi.

 2019- Other African countries growing cocoa are Nigeria, Cote dÍvoire, Cameroon,
Siera lione, Benin, Togo, Rwanda, Liberia, Uganda and Guinea.
 Physical conditions favouring Cocoa farming in Ghana-kcse 2010/2019

 High temperatures/hot/warm conditions.

 High and well distributed rainfall throughout the year.
 Deep, well drained, loamy/volcanic soils.
 A sunny period for ripening.
 High relative humidity.
 Low altitude.
 Gently sloping/undulating landscape.
 Protection of young plants from direct sunshine.
 Protection from strong winds that blow away pods.

Human conditions favouring cocoa farming in Ghana.

 The large supply of labour from the local people for cultivation and processing
which are labour intensive.
 Accessible roads to deliver cocoa to the factories or market.
 Large storage facilities for harvested cocoa.
 The large capital from cooperatives to pay for the labour required in land
preparation, planting, harvesting etc.
 The advanced technology in cocoa farming from the local people/expatriates.
 Advanced scientific research in cocoa farming/ pests and diseases that affect cocoa
pods.
 The large and ready internal or external market for cocoa.

Process of cocoa cultivation in Ghana-kcse 2019

 Land is cleared off its vegetation and ploughed.

 Cocoa trees are grown from seedlings sown in nurseries.
 Holes are dug in the farm.
 Seedlings are transplanted to the field in rows.
 Nurse crops like cassava/yams/bananas are planted.
 The crop is weeded, pruned and manure/fertilizer added.
 Cocoa trees are sprayed/fungicides.
 Cocoa trees produce mature pods that grow on the trunks.
 They become yellow/orange when ripe.
 There two main harvesting periods.
 The crop is harvested manually using long sharp knives.

Processing of Cocoa.
 The cocoa pods are split open with a sharp knife and beans scooped out by hand.
 Beans are put in heaps or mats and covered with banana leaves.
 They are allowed to ferment during which the juicy pulp drains away.
 Fermented beans are washed and cleaned.
 Beans are spread on tables covered with mats to dry in the hot sun.
 The beans are turned frequently as they dry and slowly turn brown.
 Dry beans are put in sacks and sent to the harvest buying centre.
 At the centre, dry beans are weighed and graded ready for export.

Marketing of Cocoa

 Farmers take dried beans to the collecting centres.

 Licensed agents buy the produce e.g. Ghana Co-operative Marketing Association and
Cocoa Merchants Limited.
 The beans are weighed and cash paid to farmers.
 They are then transported to the ports of Tema and Takoradi.
 The Cocoa Marketing Board then exports the beans to countries such as U.S.A,
Germany and Britain.

Uses of Cocoa-kcse 2019

 It is used as a beverage.
 It is used to manufacture cosmetics.
 It is used in baking/confectionary.
 It is used to make sweets/ice cream/flavourings.
 It is used as an animal feeds.
 It is used as a soft drink.
 It is used in the production of drugs.
 It is used in the production of alcohol.
 It is used in the production of fertilizers.
 It is used in mulching.

Problems facing cocoa farming in Ghana-kcse 2019

 Pests like capsid bug destroy cocoa trees reducing yields leading to low income for
farmers.
 Diseases like swollen shoot, black pod destroy cocoa trees reducing the yields
leading to low income for farmers.
 Climatic hazards/Droughts/Hail stones lead to destruction of the crop thus lowering
quality/quantity of cocoa.
 Fluctuations of cocoa prices in the world market leads to uncertainity earnings
making it difficult for farmers to plan ahead.
 Inaccessible roads lead to delays in delivery of cocoa to the factories resulting into
wastage/losses to farmers.
 High cost of farm inputs makes them unaffordable to the farmers leading to low
yields/low profit margins.
 Inadequate capital from cooperatives to purchase inputs lower production.
 Delayed payment to the farmers by cooperatives lowers their morale.
 Poor marketing strategies leads to low earnings.
  Mismanagement of cooperatives leads to low payment to farmers which lowers
their morale.
 Low labour supply during harvesting season increases cost of production.
 The limited storage facilities lead to wastage/spoilage of cocoa leading to losses to
farmers.
 Competition for land from other crops leads to low production.
 Competition from other beverages lowers the market/demand for cocoa.
 The poor extension services leads to low quality cocoa production.

Significance of Cocoa farming to Ghana’s Economy-kcse 2019

 Cocoa is exported therefore earns foreign exchange used to develop other sectors of
economy.
 Cocoa is consumed locally saving some foreign exchange that would be used to
import cocoa.
 Farmers sell cocoa locally earning income improving their living standards.
 It creates employment opportunities such as for people working in farms and
factories which improves their standards of living.
 Cocoa is a raw material for industries leading to development of industries such as
processing factories and packaging industries.
 Cocoa farming has led to development of feeder roads that eases movement of
goods/increasing volume of trade.
 Cocoa farming has led to development of towns such as Takoradi which are centre
for economic activity.
 It earns Kenya a lot of revenue through taxation/licenses.
 It leads to development of social amenities in cocoa growing areas improving the
living standards of people.

Quiz: 2006- State three economic problems experienced in cocoa farming in Ghana
(3marks)

 Fluctuation of prices in the world market.

 Competition from other land use.
 Inadequate labour during harvesting.
 High production costs.
 Competition from other beverages.
 OIL PALM FARMING IN NIGERIA
Main Growing Areas

√ Port Harcout √Sapele √Calabar √Enugu √Onitsha

 Other African countries growing oil palm are Cameroon, D.R.C, Liberia, Sierra
leone

Physical conditions favouring oil palm farming in Nigeria-kcse 2007

 High temperatures throughout the year.
 Moderate to High and well distributed rainfall throughout the year.
 High relative humidity.
 Plenty of sunshine during ripening season.
 Deep, well drained, loams soils
 Gently sloping/undulating land.
 Low altitude
 Shelter from strong winds
 Shade from direct sunlight for the young plants.

Human factors favouring oil palm farming in Nigeria.

 The large supply of labour from the local people for cultivation and processing
which are labour intensive.
 Accessible roads to deliver oil palm seeds to the factories.
 Large storage facilities for harvested oil palm seeds.
 The large capital from cooperatives/government to pay for the labour required in
land preparation, planting, harvesting etc.
 The advanced technology in oil palm farming from the local people/expatriates.
 Advanced scientific research in oil palm farming/ pests and diseases that affect oil
palm.
 The large and ready internal or external market for plam oil.
 Cultivation of Oil Palm-kcse 2014
 Land is cleared of its vegetation.
 Land is ploughed.
 Oil palm seeds are planted in nursery.
 The holes are dug in ploughed land.
 Seedlings are transplanted into the holes.
 Weeding is done regularly.
 Spraying id done regularly.
 Manure/fertilizer is applied.
 Mature/ripe fruits are harvested using a curved knife.
 Fruits are carried in baskets onto lorries to the factory.

Processing/Extraction of Oil from Oil Palm Fruit-kcse 2002

 At the factory, oil palm fruits are weighed.
 Fruits are put in the tube-like cage/truck and boiled by steam.
 Top cover of the boiled fruits is stripped off.
 Fruits are again cooked in digester separating pulp from kernel.
 Pulp is pressed to extract palm oil.
 Kernels are crushed to remove their shells to extract kernel oil.
 The oil is graded and packed ready for sale/export.

Uses of Oil Palm/Palm Tree-kcse 2002

 Making oil.
 The leaves are used for roofing.
 The shell and fibres are used as fuel.
 The leaves are used for making baskets, huts, mats and brooms.
 The stems are used as building poles.
 The sap from the stem is used for making wine.
 The fruit is used for cosmetics, soap and candles.
 Crushed nut is used for animal feeds and fertilizers.

Uses of Palm Oil-kcse 2014

 It is used for cooking.
 It is used in making cosmetics.
 It is used in making candles.
 It is used as a lubricant.
 It is used as cleaning agent in the tin industry.
 It is used in pharmaceutical industries for making medicine.
 It is used in production of soap and paints.

Marketing of Oil Palm

 Most of palm oil and kernels are consumed locally and less than 50% is exported.
 Most of the kernels are exported to Britain, W. Europe and U.S.A.
 Significance of Oil Palm to Nigeria’s Economy

 Palm oil is exported therefore earns foreign exchange used to develop other sectors
of economy.
 Palm oil is consumed locally saving some foreign exchange that would be used to
import palm oil.
 Farmers sell palm oil locally earning income improving their living standards.
 It creates employment opportunities such as for people working in farms and
factories which improves their standards of living.
 Palm oil is a raw material for industries leading to development of industries such
as processing factories and packaging industries.
 Oil palm farming has led to development of feeder roads that eases movement of
goods/increasing volume of trade.
 Oil palm farming has led to development of towns such as Port Harcout which are
centre for economic activity.
 It earns Kenya a lot of revenue through taxation/licenses.
 It leads to development of social amenities in oil palm growing areas improving the
living standards of people.

Problems Facing Oil Palm Farming in Nigeria

 Pests like anthrascnose and Diseases like blast/root rot which destroy crops
lowering the quality/yields and income.
 Inadequate capital from cooperatives to purchase inputs lower production.
 Impassable roads during rainy seasons delays delivering of the crop leading to
wastage/losses to farmers.
 High cost of inputs lowers production of palm oil reducing profit margin.
 The government policy on food crop production has led to more land being put
under food crops at the expense of oil palm.

Crops grown in Kenya that produce vegetable oil- kcse 2002

√maize √cashew nuts
√sunflower √soya beans
√ground nuts √coconut
√simsim √cotton

Quiz: kcse 2007- Give two problems experienced in the marketing of palm oil in
Nigeria(2mks)

 Competition from other vegetable oils.

 Impassable roads
 Production of low-quality oil.
 Reduced production which has lowered the amount of oil exported.
 COFFEE FARMING IN KENYA AND BRAZIL

COFEE FARMING IN KENYA

Coffee species grown: Arabica and Robusta

Main Growing Areas

 Central Province - Nyeri, Muranga, Kiambu, Thika and Kirinyaga.

 Eastern Province - Embu, Machakos, Tharaka, Makueni and Meru.
 Coast Province - Taita Taveta in Wundanyi area.
 Western Province - Bungoma, Vihiga, Kakamega.
 Nyanza Province - Kisii, Nyamira, Nyabondo, Oyugis.
 Nairobi Province - outskirts bordering Kiambu and Thika.

Physical conditions favouring Coffee Growing in Kenya-kcse 2021

 Cool/warm/hot conditions.
 High and well distributed rainfall (1000-2030mm) annually.
 Moderate/high temperatures.
 Deep, well drained, volcanic/acidic soils.
 Gently sloping/undulating landscape.
 High altitude.
 Shelter from direct sunlight.
 Frost free conditons.
 Requires two months dry period for flowering

Human factors favouring coffee growing in Kenya.

 The large supply of labour from the local people for cultivation and processing
which are labour intensive.
 Accessible roads to deliver coffee berries to the factory.
 Location of coffee factories near farms for quick processing of coffee berries as
soon as possible.
 The large capital from cooperatives to pay for the labour required in land
preparation, planting, regular picking etc.
 The advanced technology in coffee farming from the local people/expatriates.
 Advanced scientific research in coffee farming/ pests and diseases that affect coffee
plants.
 The large and ready internal or external market for coffee.
 The government policy on diversification of crops has led to coffee growing.

Coffee cultivation from land preparation to harvesting.

 Land is cleared off its vegetation.

 Land is ploughed using tractors.
 Coffee seeds are sown in a nursery.
 Shallow furrows are dug in the ploughed farm.
 Seedlings are transplanted into the furrows.
 Seedlings are sheltered from strong sunlight.
 Mulching is done.
 Weeding is done regularly.
 Fertilizers/manure are applied.
 Spraying is done to control pests/diseases.
 Plants are pruned regularly to control cropping and facilitate picking.
 Coffee berries are harvested by manual hand picking of red berries only.

Coffee processing-kcse 2009

 Ripe red berries are weighed at the factory.

 The berries are sorted out to remove unripe/diseased berries.
 Then taken through a machine to remove outer covering pulp.
 Berries are fermented in tanks for a while.
 Fermented beans are washed, then dried for about a week.
 The husks are removed and the beans winnowed.
 The beans are sorted out and graded.
 The beans are roasted, ground into powder and packed ready for sale/export.

Marketing of coffee in Kenya

 Handled by co-operatives which own factories.

 After processing they sell coffee to KPCU.
 KPCU then passes to Coffee Board of Kenya.
 Owners of large plantations can directly export their coffee.
 Exported to countries such as Britain, Germany, Finland, Norway, Japan and N.
through the world market where quota is allocated each country.

How the Kenyan Government is assisting coffee small Scale Farmers

 Carrying out research into new species of coffee and control of pests and diseases.
 Construction of new roads and improvement of the existing ones to enhance
transportation of coffee.
 Providing extension workers through the ministry of agriculture to advice farmers on
the best farming methods.
 Advancing loans to farmers through K.P.C.U. to assist them improve on their
farming.
 It helps the farmers to market their produce through Coffee Board of Kenya.
 It holds courses and has set demonstration farms to update farmers on new farming
methods.
 Problems Facing Coffee Farming in Kenya-kcse 2021

 Diseases like root rot, leaf rust which reduce the coffee yields leading to losses to
farmers.
 Pests like aphids, leaf miner which attacks coffee leaves causing them to fall off
reducing the yield leading to losses to farmers.
 Mismanagement of some co-operatives and embezzlement of funds by leaders which
has caused some co-operatives to close up.
 Exhaustion of soil due to monoculture as coffee uses a lot of nutrients from the soil.
 Inadequate capital making the farmer unable to buy inputs such as fertilizers and
chemicals leading to low production.
 Unreliable rainfall and drought conditions which causes young berries to ripen
prematurely and fall off resulting to low yields hence loss to farmers.
 Competition from other crops which have caused farmers to abandon coffee due to
low prices.
 Delayed payments to farmers which has lowered their morale.
 Impassable roads during rainy season delays delivery of coffee berries to the factory
reducing their quality leading to losses to farmers.
 Fluctuation of coffee prices in the world market making farmers unable to plan ahead.
 High cost of farm inputs lowers coffee production reducing profit margin.
 Shortage of labour supply during harvesting season increasing the cost of production
hence low profit margins.

Significance of coffee Farming in Kenya

 Coffee is exported therefore earns foreign exchange used to develop other sectors of
economy.
 Coffee is consumed locally saving some foreign exchange that would be used to
import coffee.
 Farmers sell coffee locally earning income improving their living standards.
 It creates employment opportunities such as for people working in farms and
factories which improves their standards of living.
 Coffee is a raw material for industries leading to development of industries such as
processing factories, blending and packaging industries.
 Coffee farming has led to development of feeder roads that eases movement of
goods/increasing volume of trade.
 Coffee farming has led to development of towns such as Embu which are centre for
economic activity.
 It earns Kenya a lot of revenue through taxation/licenses.
 It leads to development of social amenities in coffee growing areas improving the
living standards of people.
 1. COFFEE FARMING IN BRAZIL

Main growing areas.

Physical factors favouring coffee growing in Brazil.

 Moderate to high temperatures.

 High and well distributed rainfall throughout the year.
 Deep, well drained, terra rossa soils.
 Undulating surface at the Brazilian plateau around Sao Paolo.
 High altitude.

Human factors favouring coffee growing in Brazil.

 Availability of cheap labour from tenant labourers given small plots to grow
subsistence crops which makes production costs to be low.
 Well-developed roads and railways linking estates to export ports and cities like Sao
Paolo, Salvador and Rio de Janeiro.
 Advanced scientific research in coffee growing.
 The large capital from the government/cooperatives.
 Advanced technology in beef farming from the local people.
 Presence of coffee processing factories.
 The large and ready internal and external market for coffee.

Problems facing coffee farming in Brazil-kcse 2009

 The wasteful techniques of growing the crop leads to soil exhaustion which makes the
coffee yield per hectare low.
 Climatic hazards/frost destroy coffee plants reducing the yields.
 Unplanned planting leads to overproduction/surplus production which lowers the
prices.
 The fluctuating coffee prices in the world market sometimes leads to low profits.
 Stiff competition from other coffee producing countries threatens Brazil’s dominance
in the world coffee market.

How Brazilian Government respond to the problems facing coffee.

 The government lobbies for higher quotas in the world market.
 Prohibiting new planting.
 Buying and storing surplus coffee to artificially stabilise supply to maintain profit
margins.
 Creation of artificial shortage of coffee in the world market by the institute for
permanent defence of coffee to maintain high prices.
 Encouraging crop diversification and mixed farming to reduce overdependence on
coffee.

Reasons for decline of coffee production in Brazil

 Falling profits
 Introduction of new crops(diversification)
 Increased competition from other coffee producing countries.
 Climatic hazards
 Indiscriminate picking of ripe and unripe berries.

Significance of coffee Farming in Brazil

 Coffee is exported therefore earns foreign exchange used to develop other sectors of
economy.
 Coffee is consumed locally saving some foreign exchange that would be used to
import coffee.
 Farmers sell coffee locally earning income improving their living standards.
 It creates employment opportunities such as for people working in farms and
factories which improves their standards of living.
 Coffee is a raw material for industries leading to development of industries such as
processing factories, blending and packaging industries.
 Coffee farming has led to development of feeder roads that eases movement of
goods/increasing volume of trade.

Similarities between Coffee Farming in Kenya and Brazil.

 Both Kenya and Brazil grow similar varieties of coffee i.e. Arabica and Robusta.
 In both countries, coffee is a major foreign exchange earner.
 In both countries, coffee is grown by small- and large-scale farmers.
 Coffee farming in both countries is affected by falling prices in the world market.
 Coffee experiences stiff competition from other producing nations in both countries.
 Problem of soil exhaustion is common in both countries.
 In both countries, coffee farming is scientifically managed.
 In both countries the governments are involved in coffee marketing.
 Brazil exports coffee to the same countries as Kenya e.g. Britain, Germany, etc.
 Cultivation and processing in both countries is done in much the same way.

Differences between Coffee Farming in Kenya and Brazil.

 There is more extensive land for coffee farming in Brazil while in Kenya land is
limited.
 In Brazil, farmers grow other crops/soya beans alongside coffee whereas Kenyan
farmers mainly grow coffee.
 Brazil has more efficient coffee marketing systems while Kenya has poor coffee
marketing system.
 In Kenya land ownership is individual while in Brazil, the land tenure allows tenants
to work for rich land owners.
 In Kenya, farmers rely on the use of artificial fertilizers while in Brazil, there is little
use of fertilizers.
 In Brazil there is a good network of roads and railways connecting plantations to
export ports while in Kenya transport system is poorly developed.
 Frost is the main climatic hazard facing coffee farming in Brazil while Kenya’s main
climatic hazards are heavy rainfall and prolonged drought.
 In Brazil work is done by tenants while in Kenya it’s done by family members or
casual labourers.
 Brazil earns more foreign exchange from coffee while Kenya earns little foreign
exchange from coffee.
 In Kenya only ripe berries are picked while in Brazil ripe and unripe berries are
picked due to little supervision which affects the quality of coffee.
 In Brazil, coffee is mainly grown on plateaus while in Kenya it’s mainly grown in the
highlands.
 Brazil’s coffee production is high so it’s allocated a bigger quota in the world market
while Kenya’s coffee production is low.
 In Kenya coffee is grown in soils such as red volcanic soils while in Brazil it’s grown
mainly in terra rossa soils which are quite good for coffee.
 In Kenya most coffee is produced by small scale holders while in Brazil it’s by large
holders.
 WHEAT FARMING IN KENYA AND CANADA

1. Wheat Growing in Kenya.

Main Growing Areas –kcse 2017

 Uasin Gishu √ Nanyuki

 Nakuru √ Nyeri
 Narok √ Trans Nzoia
 Meru √ Keiyo
 Nyandarua
 Elgeyo marakwet
 Laikipia

Physical conditions favouring Wheat growing in Kenya-kcse 2005

 Gently sloping/undulating landscape for proper drainage and allow use of machines.
 Moderate/high temperature/Warm conditions.
 High and well distributed rainfall throughout the year.
 Deep, well drained, volcanic/loam/clay soils.
 Dry spell for ripening of wheat.
 High altitude.

Human factors favouring wheat farming in Kenya.

 The large supply of labour from the local people.

 The large and ready market for wheat.
 Well-developed roads for transportation of wheat.
 The large capital from the cooperatives/government.
 Advanced scientific research in wheat farming.
 Advanced technology in wheat farming.

Wheat cultivation
 Land is cleared off its vegetation.
 Land is ploughed using tractor.
 Harrowing is done.
 Fertilizer is added before sowing.
 Sowing is done during cool season.
 Weeding is done/herbicides applied.
 Small scale farmers use sickles/knives to cut wheat heads.
 Large scale farmers use combine harvesters during harvesting.
 The cut wheat is threshed, dried and winnowed.
 Uses of wheat-kcse 2005
 Wheat is used as animal feed.
 It is used for making adhesives/glue
 It is used in manufacturing paper/straw boards.
 It is used as human food.
 Wheat bran is used as chicken/dairy feed.
 Wheat flour is used industrially in distilleries/bakeries/straw plating.

Problems facing wheat farming in Kenya

 Farmers have inadequate capital to buy inputs which lowers the yields.
 Pests such as dusty brown beetle/aphids/birds destroy crops lowering yields.
 Diseases such as the leaf rust/stem rust/glume blotch destroy crops lowering the
yields.
 Price fluctuations on the domestic market especially when selling through middle
men leading to losses to farmers.
 Limited storage facilities lead to wastage/spoilage of wheat hence losses to farmers.
 Climatic hazards (kcse 2017) such as the strong winds/frost/unreliable
rainfall/prolonged cold/drought destroy crops lowering yields.
 Soil exhaustion due to monoculture reducing yields hence low income to farmers.

Significance of wheat farming in Kenya.

 Wheat is exported therefore earns foreign exchange used to develop other sectors of
economy.
 Wheat is consumed locally saving some foreign exchange that would be used to
import wheat.
 Farmers sell wheat locally earning income improving their living standards.
 It creates employment opportunities such as for people working in farms and
factories which improves their standards of living.
 Wheat is a raw material for industries leading to development of industries such as
processing factories and packaging industries.
 Wheat farming has led to development of feeder roads that eases movement of
goods/increasing volume of trade.
 Wheat farming has led to development of towns such as Narok which are centre for
economic activity.
 It earns Kenya a lot of revenue through taxation/licenses.
 It leads to development of social amenities in wheat growing areas improving the
living standards of people.
 2. Wheat farming in Canada.

 Wheat in Canada is grown in the Prairie Provinces of:-2011/2012/2023

 Alberta
 Manitoba (H)
 Saskatchewan (G)

Physical conditions that favour wheat farming in Canada –kcse 2005/2011/2012

 Moderate temperatures/warm conditions.
 Moderate rainfall.
 Availability of extensive land/undulating land.
 Deep, well drained, Brown chernozemz soils/Prairies soils.
 Sunny summer/conditions.
 Well distributed rainfall throughout the year.

Human conditions that favour wheat farming in Canada.

 Well-developed railway network.
 Large and ready internal or external market for wheat.
 Large capital from the government.
 Advanced scientific research in wheat farming.

Problems facing wheat farming in Canada-kcse 2012

 Pests such as rodents/birds/weevils/grasshoppers attack the crops lowering the

quality/quantity of produce.
 Diseases such as stem rust/leaf rust/glume blotch affect the crops leading to low
yields.
 The soils have become exhausted due to monoculture leading to low yields/lower
quality yields.
 Adverse climatic conditions such as frost, hailstones, summer heat waves, prolonged
winters and drought leading to low yields/lower quality yields.
 Fluctuation in world prices of wheat has led to farmers being uncertain about their
earnings unable to plan ahead.
 Canada faces competition from other wheat producing countries which has reduced
the market for her produce.
 Frozen water in winter limits accessibility to market.

Significance of wheat farming in Canada.

 Wheat is exported therefore earns foreign exchange used to develop other sectors of
economy.
 Wheat is consumed locally saving some foreign exchange that would be used to
import wheat.
 Farmers sell wheat locally earning income improving their living standards.
 It creates employment opportunities such as for people working in farms and
factories which improves their standards of living.
 Wheat is a raw material for industries leading to development of industries such as
processing factories and packaging industries.

Similarities between farming in Kenya and Canada.

 In both countries there is mechanization of wheat farming.

 In both countries wheat is grown by large scale farmers.
 In both countries wheat farming is favoured by a dry sunny spell
 Both countries experience the problem of pests and diseases.
 Wheat in both countries is grown in areas with gently sloping terrain.
 Wheat growing in both countries is affected by climatic hazards.

Differences between wheat farming in Kenya and Canada.

 In Kenya, little research is being undertaken on wheat farming while in Canada there
is advanced research on wheat farming.-2012
 In Kenya there is no government policy on subsidies/incentives to wheat farmers
while in Canada the government subsidizes the farmers in case of crop failure.-2012
 In Kenya, there is poor road networks/railway networks in wheat growing areas
while in Canada there is elaborate railway network/roads/water networks in wheat
growing areas.-2012
 There are more extensive tracts of land for wheat farming in Canada while in Kenya
land is limited.
 In Kenya wheat is mainly for local consumption while in Canada wheat is mainly for
export.
 Canadian farmers specialize while Kenyan farmers carry out mixed farming.
 In Canada, wheat farming is more mechanized while in Kenya it is less mechanized.
 In Kenya farming is all year round whereas Canada experiences winters.
 In Kenya farming is carried out on plateaus while in Canada it’s on plains.
 Canada produces more wheat grain while Kenya produces small wheat grain.
 Kenya grows spring wheat while Canada grows both spring and winter wheat.

HORTICULTURAL FARMING IN KENYA AND NETHERLANDS

 Horticulture is the cultivation of fruits, vegetables and flowers for

sale/commercial purposes –kcse 2023
 Market gardening is the intensive cultivation of vegetables and fruits for sale in
the nearby urban centre.

Characteristics of horticultural farming in Kenya –kcse 2023

 The farms are scientifically managed.

 The farms are usually small.
 The farms are located near well- established transport routes leading to urban
areas.
 It requires heavy capital investment.
 It is market oriented/ export-oriented.
 Farming is highly specialized
 Land is intensively used to get maximum benefits.
 Produce output is high.
 The produce is highly perishable.
1. HORTICULTURE FARMING IN KENYA

Physical factors favouring horticultural farming in Kenya –kcse 2023

 Deep, well drained, volcanic/ loamy soils which provides nutrients/support a variety
of crops.
 Moderate temperatures/hot wet climate favours the growth of tropical crops.
 Cool wet climate in the highlands favours the growth of temperate crops.
 Availability of water/ rivers/ lakes.
 Relatively gentle sloping land/ undulating landscape.

Human conditions favouring horticultural farming in Kenya

 High demand for horticultural products both in local and international market.
 Technical and financial assistance from friendly countries.
 The large capital from large and local overseas companies e.g. Del Monte, Kakuzi,
etc.
 High labour due to high population as it is labour intensive.
 Enhanced research on better seeds or pest/diseases affecting horticultural crops.
 The government policy on diversification of export crops.

Main Horticultural crops grown in Kenya-kcse 2021/ 2023

i. Flowers e.g. roses, orchids, carnations, gladioli, lillies
ii. Vegetables e.g. carrots, beans, cabbbages, kales, onions, tomatoes, spinach
 iii. Fruits e.g. oranges, lemons, pawpaws, pineapples, avocadoes, watermelons,
passions.

Horticultural growing areas in Kenya.

 Kiambu
 Nakuru
 Kericho
 Embu
 Kirinyaga
 Machakos
 Muranga
 Nyeri
 Kisii

Leading imports of Kenya’s horticultural products.

 Netherlands √ Belgium
 Germany √ Japan
 Norway √ USA
 England

Problems facing horticultural farming in Kenya

 Inadequate capital in part of small-scale farmers to buy inputs which lowers yield
quality and quantity.
 Impassable roads during rainy season delays delivery of horticultural products to the
market leading to losses to farmers.
 Pests like nematodes/aphids and Diseases like leaf blight/root rot which destroy the
crops leading to losses.
 Poor marketing structure leads to reliance on middlemen who exploit the farmers.
 Freight charges are very high leading to low profit margins.
 High cost of farm inputs lowers production reducing profit margins.
 Stiff competition from established producers in world market limit the quantity
Kenyan farmers sell.
 Low quality produce may lead to rejection in the market hence farmers incur losses.
 Price fluctuations in the world market demoralizes farmers/unable to plan ahead.

Contribution of horticulture to the economy of Kenya-kcse 2021

 Horticulture has offered employment opportunities to many people/farmers who earn
income from sale of produce hence raising their living standards.
 It has provided raw materials to agro-based industries thus promoting their
growth/diversifying the economy.
 It earns the country foreign exchange through exportation of horticultural crops which
is used to develop other sectors of the economy.
 It has led to the expansion and development of transport thus improving accessibility
to many areas.
 It earns government revenue through taxes/licenses which is used to develop the
country.
 Horticulture has utilized marginal/swampy land hence putting more land into use.
 It has increased food supply hence promoting food security.

Reasons why horticultural farming is encouraged in Kenya –kcse 2014

 To earn foreign exchange which help to improve the economy.

 To create employment which enables people earn income hence improve their living
standards.
 To provide raw materials which support the development of related industries.
 To enable farmers with small pieces of land earn (high) income to improve their
standards of living.
 To improve food supply in the country thereby ensuring food security.
 To diversify agricultural production reducing over reliance on few cash crops/increase
earnings.

Challenges that horticultural farmers experience in marketing their produce-

kcse 2011/2023
 The impassable roads during the rainy season make it difficult for the perishable
goods to reach the market on time/ losses to the farmers.
 The cost of transporting produce by air is high thus lowering the profit margin.
 Poor marketing strategies leads to reliance on middlemen who exploit the farmers.
 Low quality produce may lead to rejection in the market hence making the farmers
incur losses/farmers are demoralized.
 The farmers face stiff competition from the established/upcoming producers which
limits the quantity the farmers are able to sell.
 Stringent quality standards required at the international market increases the cost of
production thus lowering the profit margin.
 Fluctuations of the world market prices discourages farmers.
 Limited preservation facilities/refrigeration facilities leads to spoilage of the produce
hence losses to farmers.

Advantages of Green Houses

 Plants don’t suffer effects of excessive rainfall.

 Plants aren’t affected by drought.
 Pest and disease spread are controlled.
 Uniformity of climate is created for all plants.
 Plants are protected from damaging effects of strong winds and airborne diseases.
 Crops can be grown throughout the year.
  It’s easier to control weeds by chemicals because the area is small.

Reasons why flowers are mostly grown in green houses in Kenya-kcse 2021
 In order to protect flowers from excessive rainfall/strong wind/hailstones.
 To enable plants to be watered constantly.
 In order to control pest/diseases easily.
 To enable plants enjoy controlled/optimum moisture/temperatures.
 To allow flowers to be grown throughout the year.
 In order to control weeds easily.

Reasons why horticultural produce is mainly exported by air –kcse 2021

 Horticultural crops are highly perishable.

 They are in high demand hence require urgent supply.
 Some crops are light in weight thus suitable for export by air.
 They are highly priced hence can compensate for cost of air transport.
 Most of the markets are located in far countries.

Kcse 2023: State four factors that have contributed to fast growth of flower farming sub
sector in Kenya.
 Rise in local demand for flowers/ market.
 Increased investment in greenhouses ensuring high quality flower products.
 Low cost of production of flowers compared to other crops.
 Increased international demand due to high quality of Kenyan flowers.
 Shift from growing traditional cash crops that are less profitable.
 Well organized marketing system/ cooperatives help farmers to export their produce.
 High level research has led to development of high yielding varieties of horticultural
crops.
 Improved transport network/ roads/ airports/ quick transportation/ export of produce
to the market.
 Availability of skilled manpower.
 High population provides cheap labour.

2. HORTICULTURE FARMING IN THE NETHERLANDS.

Major farming areas and crops grown.

i. The Wasteland area- carrots, lettuces, cucumbers, spinach, grapes, peaches, leeks
ii. Leiden-Harlem area- roses, clematis, rhododendrons
iii. Arnhem-Nijmegen area- jam making fruits, soft fruits like raspberries, red-currants,
gooseberries
 Conditions favouring horticulture farming in Netherlands.

 Deep, well drained, sandy soils.

 Warm Gulf Stream Current provide free frost condition throughout the year.
 Accessibility to foreign markets due to central position in Europe.
 Shortage of land making it appropriate to establish horticultural farms.
 Advanced technology such as the use of glass houses.
 Fast and efficient transport system easing movement of horticultural products
throughout the country e.g. good harbours like Rotterdam, canals, navigable rivers,
roads and railways.
 Skilled labour which ensures high production and quality packaging.
 High demand in the populous urban areas of continental Europe.
 Large capital from highly organised co-operative societies which provide loans to
farmers.
 Advanced technology in horticultural farming.

Markets for horticultural products.

a) Local markets- Towns like Hague, Rotterdam, Amsterdam, Utrecht, Arnhem

b) Foreign markets- Britain, Germany, France, Sweden, England

Contribution of horticulture to the economy of Netherlands.

 Horticulture has offered employment opportunities to many people/farmers who earn
income from sale of produce hence raising their living standards.
 It has provided raw materials to agro-based industries thus promoting their
growth/diversifying the economy.
 It earns the country foreign exchange through exportation of horticultural crops which
is used to develop other sectors of the economy.
 It has led to the expansion and development of transport thus improving accessibility
to many areas.
 It earns government revenue through taxes/licenses which is used to develop the
country.
 Horticulture has utilized marginal/swampy land hence putting more land into use.
 It has increased food supply hence promoting food security.

Features of horticultural farming in the Netherlands-2011

i. The farms are generally small in size.

ii. Most farmers practice mixed farming.
iii. The farms are intensively used.
iv. Farming is largely labour intensive.
v. Farming is scientifically managed.
 Similarities between horticulture farming in Kenya and Netherlands.

 Similar crops are grown in both countries e.g. fruits, flowers and vegetables.
 In both countries there is use of green houses on horticultural land.
 Horticultural farming in both countries is export-oriented.
 In both countries, there is employment of scientific methods of farming.
 In both countries, horticultural farming is done intensively to get maximum returns.
 Crops grown partly on reclaimed land in both countries.

Differences between horticulture farming in Kenya and Netherlands –kcse 2021

 In Netherlands, there is more advanced technology used to enhance horticulture

while in Kenya, the technology is low.
 In Netherlands, there is well developed transport system which facilitates movement
of horticultural produce while in Kenya, transport networks are less developed.
 In Netherlands, there is highly skilled manpower while in Kenya there is low skilled
manpower.
 In Netherlands, farmers have more access to capital while in Kenya they have
limited access to capital.
 Netherlands has well organized marketing strategies while in Kenya marketing is
poorly coordinated.
 In Netherlands horticulture farming enjoys more advanced research while in Kenya
research in horticulture is low.
 Netherlands horticultural crops are in high demand both locally and internationally
while in Kenya the local demand is low.

Common factors in Kenya and Netherlands that have favoured horticultural farming-
kcse 2011

 Both countries have a varied climatic condition.

 In both countries, horticultural farming is practiced in areas with well drained soils.
 In both countries, irrigation is carried out.
 Both countries sell their horticultural produce in the local and international market.
 In both countries large companies/private organizations have invested in horticultural
farming.
 In both countries, greenhouses are used.
 In both countries, transport is well developed.
 Availability of labour in both countries.
 Use of advanced technology in both countries.
 LIVESTOCK FARMING.

 Livestock farming is the rearing of domestic animals like sheep, goats, cattle and
also poultry.
 They are of two types namely;
 Nomadic pastoralism
 Livestock ranching
 Dairy farming
 Beef farming

1. Nomadic pastoralism.

 It is the rearing of animals on natural pasture involving seasonal migration in search

of water and pasture.

Main Areas of pastoral farming in Kenya

 Turkana
 Wajir
 Garissa
 Marsabit
 Kajiado
 Narok

 Pastoral communities in Kenya are Maasai, Samburu, Turkana, Somali, Borana,

Rendile and Pokot. In Africa(Fulani, Karamojong, Tswana, Maasai)
 Animals kept are cattle, goats, sheep, camels and horses.
 Animal products are milk, meat, blood and hides.s
 Transhumance pastoralism involves herdsmen moving with their livestock to the
lowlands during winter and to the uplands during summer.
 Sedentary pastoralism involves people rearing their animals near their permanent
homesteads.

Factors Influencing Nomadic Pastoralism

 Grazing areas are free from animal pests especially tsetse flies for being dry and hot.
 Savannah grassland and semi-desert conditions which cause grass to sprout during
rains and drying during the hot dry season.
 Availability of grass most times of the year in the bush and wooded savannah.
 Gentle/undulating plains which makes it easy for the movement of animals from one
place to another.
 Sparse population of N and N.E region due to harsh climatic conditions which
encourages nomadic pastoralism because each community is able to occupy large
tracts of land.
  Desert and semi-desert conditions which don’t favour agriculture making livestock
rearing to be way of earning livelihood.
 Tradition of the people whereby animals are a sign of wealth and are used for paying
dowry and slaughtered for festivals.

Characteristics of Nomadic Pastoralism –kcse 2017

 They keep large numbers of animals.

 There is uncontrolled breeding of animals.
 Many kinds of animals are kept e.g. cattle, sheep, goats and camels.
 They keep animals as a sign of wealth/prestige.
 Land in which animals are kept is communally owned.
 The animals are weakened by pests and diseases/have low value/unhealthy.
 The animals are moved seasonally in search for pasture and water.
 There is inefficient marketing system/walking for long distances to the market.
 Animals are exposed to cattle rustling/frequent raids.
 Animals are reared for subsistence not for commercial purposes.
 They keep indigenous cattle which are hardy such as Zebu and Boran.

QUIZ:-2008 Discuss nomadic pastoralism in Kenya under;

i. The cattle breeds kept(2mks)

 The pastoralists keep mainly indigenous breeds like zebu and Boran.

ii. Pattern of movement(2mks)

 Their movement is seasonal
 During dry season, the pastoralists migrate with the livestock to
highlands where there is pasture and water.
 During the wet season, they move to the plains since pasture is
available.

iii. Marketing of animal(2mks)

 Some cattle are sold to slaughter house/to individuals.
 Some pastrolists sell their livestock through community groups.
 Some livestock are sold to the livestock marketing department.
 Some pastoralists sell their animals to Kenya Meet Commission(KMC)

2008- Give three reasons why nomadic pastoralists keep large herds of animals.

 It is a form of insurance against natural calamities such as diseases and drought.

 Animals are kept as a sign of wealth/prestige/social status.
 Animals are kept for use to pay dowry.
 Animals are used as a source of food/milk/meat/blood.
 Animals are source of income when sold.
 Problems facing nomadic pastoralism in Kenya –kcse 2015

 Shortage of water and pasture due to long dry spell making animals to be of poor
quality.
 Pests such as ticks and fleas which weaken animals and Diseases such as east coast
fever, foot and mouth and anthrax which cause heavy losses of stock.
 Cattle rusting/raids from neighbouring communities make the area insure.
 Poor marketing strategies
 Competition from other land uses/decrease in grazing land
 Impassable roads within the areas limiting the market.
 Prolonged drought leads to death of animals due to shortage of water and pastures.
 Poor stocks management which leads to poor- or low-quality animals.
 Exploitation by middlemen so herders make little profit.
 Inadequate veterinary services hence difficult to treat animals.

Measures taken by the Kenya Government to improve pastoral Farming

 Encouraging pastoralists through the ministry of livestock to start ranching in order to

improve the quality of their animals.
 Improvement of water supply in drier areas by sinking boreholes, wells, construction
of dams, etc.
 Establishment of demonstration ranches to sensitize pastoralists on better methods of
animal husbandry.
 Construction of cattle dips, and setting animal pest and disease organizations to
control pests and diseases.
 Providing extension services to advice pastoralists and offer drug treatment to
animals.
 Teaching pastoralists through formal education about advantages of keeping
manageable sizes of herds.
 Encouraging them to keep smaller number of animals to solve the problem of quality.
 Ploughing and resowing pasture with more nourishing drought resistant grass.
 Purchasing pedigree animals and cross breeding with indigenous animals resulting in
hybrid stock which is able to resist many tropical diseases, give more milk and better-
quality meet.

2. Livestock Ranching

 This involves keeping of livestock (cattle) in marginalized areas in large fenced

farms(ranches).
 It is common in USA, Australia, Argentina
 In Kenya, ranches are practiced in areas like Athi River, Narok, Kajiado, Taita
Taveta, Machakos, Makueni, West Pokot, Laikipia and Samburu.
 Characteristics of Livestock Ranching

 Farms are scientifically managed.

 Animals are provided with water in the farms.
 Farms are fenced/Ranches are divided into paddocks.
 Variety of animals are kept
 Pasture is improved by applying manure
 Animals are improved through cross-breeding
 Animals are given supplementary feeds/fodder during dry period
 There is minimal movement of animals
 Overstocking is controlled
 Grazing is controlled
 Large tracts of land.
 Ranchers live in permanent dwelling.

DAIRY FARMING IN KENYA.

 Definition kcse 2020: Dairy farming is the practice of keeping animals/cattle for
milk/milk products.
 Dairy farming counties in Kenya are Nakuru, Uasin Gishu, Laikipia, Kericho,
Nyeri, Trans Nzoia, Kiambu, Nyandarua, Meru, Nandi, Kisii, Nyamira, Tharaka
Nithi, Machakos, Vihiga, Kakamega, Makueni, Kisumu

Characteristics of Dairy farming.

 Specific cattle breeds that produce high milk yield are reared.
 Practiced in cooler and wetter areas.
 Milking is mechanized/high technology is used.
 Animals are kept for milk production.
 Small farms
 Ranches/animals are restricted in an area.
 Intensive farming
 Zero grazing and fodder feeding practiced
 Open grazing is common

Dairy cattle breeds reared in Kenya-kcse 2007/2012/2016

 Friesian/Holstein
 Guernsey
 Jersey
 Ayrshire
 Sahiwal
 Alderney
 The Channel Island cows
 Physical conditions favouring Dairy Farming.

 Moderate/high rainfall.
 Deep, well drained, volcanic/loam soils.
 Moderate/high temperatures.
 Cool/warm/hot conditions.
 Gently sloping/undulating landscape.
 Constant supply of natural pastures.
 Supply of water from rivers.

Human conditions favouring Dairy farming in Kenya-kcse 2012

 High population in the area offers ready market for milk and other dairy
products/provide labour.
 There are milk processing factories which help in milk processing/storage.
 Many parts of Kenya highland are well served by road network which supports fast
transport of milk to processing plants.
 Co-operative societies have been set up to market the dairy products.
 Provision of veterinary services that treat sick animals.
 Provision of extension officers to educate the farmers on cattle rearing.

Processing of Milk
 At the creameries, milk is weighed.
 Pasteurization - Heating liquid milk to 75◦c for about 15 minutes.
 Sterilization - Heating to 100◦c for a short time to kill bacteria which survived
pasteurization.
 Homogenizing - Breaking and distributing fat particles throughout the milk to ensure
a layer of cream doesn’t form of milk.
 Ultra-heat treatment - Heating milk beyond 100◦c.
 Processed further into products such as butter, powdered milk, ghee or cheese.
 The products are packed ready for distribution to consumers.

Marketing of milk Kenya

 It’s done by Kenya Co-operative Creameries (KCC) and Dairy board of Kenya.
 Farmers may take the milk to KCC by themselves.
 Local co-operatives also collect milk from farmers at various collection points and
take it to KCC.
 After processing the products are sent to KCC depots for distribution to consumers.
 Some is exported to neighbouring countries such as Uganda.
 Other processors also market their milk locally and internationally.
 Problems Facing Dairy Farming in Kenya

 Small scale dairy farms face stiff competition from other cash crops like tea, coffee,
vegetables and passion fruits, etc.
 The cost of inputs is very high which has minimized mechanization and resulted into
to low profit margins.
 Impassable roads during the rainy season making milk delivery difficult hence
spoilage.
 Drought/unreliable rainfall which result in inadequate pastures which causes
temporary milk shortage.
 Risk of cattle pests like ticks/Tse tse fly and Diseases like east coast fever which
affect dairy animals lowering yield.
 Poor management of dairy co-operatives at grassroots resulting to delayed
payments which kills farmers’ morale.
 Shortage of proper storage facilities at the collecting centres such as cooling plants
causing milk to go bad before it gets to processing factories leading to losses for
farmers.
 AI services have been privatized making them very expensive and inaccessible to
many small-scale farmers resulting in low quality breeds and hence low milk
production.
 Fluctuating milk prices/low prices make farmers unable to plan ahead.
 Inadequate capital to purchase expensive farm inputs hence limit dairy farming in
large scale.

Steps taken by Kenyan government to improve dairy farming.

 Appointing supervisory boards for dairy co-operatives.

 Extending credit facilities to farmers through co-operatives.
 Holding agricultural shows to educate farmers on good dairy farm management.
 Setting up demonstration farms which breed high quality bulls to be released to
farmers.
 Establishing well maintained roads for delivery of milk.
 Carrying out extensive research on possible solutions to diseases.

Contribution of Dairy farming to the Economy of Kenya.

 Earns Kenya foreign exchange by exporting milk and dairy products.

 Milk/milk products are consumed locally saving foreign exchange.
 Government also earns revenue by taxation from the sale of dairy products which is
used to fund various development projects.
 Provides employment in dairy farms, milk processing plants and dairy related
industries enabling farmers to earn income improving their living standards.
 Gives farmers an income which has alleviated poverty and raised living standards.
 Promoted development of industries such as milk processing plants, input
manufacturing industries which has created more employment and raised per capita
income.
 Promotes good health and nutrition by providing proteins, fats and vitamins that are
essential for human growth and development.
 Has led to improvement of transport networks in Kenya by government improving
existing roads to ease milk delivery.

DAIRY FARMING IN DENMARK.

Types of Animals kept.

 Danish Red
 Friesian
 Ayrshire
 Channel island cows

Physical conditions favouring dairy farming in Denmark-kcse 2016

 The landscape is gently sloping which is suitable for grazing.

 The climate has warm/sunny summer that allow outdoor grazing.
 There is cool climate suitable for pasture growing.
 The moderate rainfall that supports growth of grass/fodder crops.
 Deep, well drained, clay soils that support growth of high-quality pasture.

Human conditons favouring dairy farming in Denmark.

 Mechanization of most dairy farms e.g. machines for milking are widely used.
 Large market for dairy products locally and in other European countries due to a high
purchasing power.
 Availability of adequate capital and modern technology which has improved
production and storage of dairy products.
 Extensive use of artificial insemination which improves the quality of breeds making
dairy farming a success.
 Rapid growth of co-operative movement which are very competitive causing farmers
to strive to get products of high quality.

Problems facing dairy farming in Denmark

 Rare incidents of diseases such as mastitis and Salmonella Dublin affect dairy cattle.
 It’s expensive to run farms in winter when animals are kept indoors and fed on fodder.
 Dairy animals emit a considerable amount of carbon dioxide and methane which
contributes to greenhouse effect.
 Reduced market shares due to competition from other dairy producing countries and
restrictions.
 Occasional spells of drought causing a considerable drop in milk production.

Similarities between dairy farming in Kenya and Denmark.

 Dairy farmers in both countries sell their products to co-operatives.

 Both countries experience similar problems of adverse weather changes and diseases.
 Animals kept are similar e.g. Friesian, Ayrshire, Jersey, in both countries.
 Milk processing and dairy products are similar e.g. liquid milk, cheese and butter in
both countries.
 In both countries milk is consumed locally and for export.
 Both countries keep traditional and exotic breeds.
 Open and zero grazing are practiced in both countries.
 Artificial insemination is used in both countries.

Differences between dairy farming in Kenya and Denmark –kcse 2012

 In Kenya, cattle mainly depend on naturally growing grass/pasture whereas in

Denmark, the cattle is fed on fodder/commercial grass/commercial feeds.
 In Kenya, mechanization is limited/mainly labour intensive while in Denmark,
mechanization is widely used.
 In Kenya, most farmers practice mixed farming while in Denmark dairy farming is
highly specialized.
 In Kenya, most of the dairy products are consumed by the domestic market while in
Denmark, the products are mainly exported.
 In Kenya, dairy production is affected by variation in climate while in Denmark dairy
farming is least affected by variation in climate.
 In Kenya, dairy cooperatives are least developed while in Denmark, dairy
cooperatives are highly developed.
 In Kenya artificial insemination/extension services is limited to a few farms while in
Denmark, artificial insemination/extension services is widely used.
 In Kenya animals graze outdoor throughout the year while in Denmark, animals are
kept indoor during winter.
 In Kenya research is limited while in Denmark research is extensive.
 In Kenya, dairy farming is practiced in highlands while in Denmark it is found
throughout the country.
 BEEF FARMING
 Definition:-kcse 2017- Beef farming is the rearing of cattle for production of meat.
 The major world exporters of beef are Argentina, Australia, New Zealand, USA
and Europe.

1. BEEF FARMING IN KENYA.

a) Traditional Beef farming

 Done by the pastoral communities like Maasai, Turkana, Pokot and Somali.
 Occupy counties like Kajiado, Turkana, West Pokot, Garissa, Wajir and Mandera.
 Types of animals kept are Zebu, Boran and Sahiwal breeds.

b) Commercial Beef farming

 Occupy counties like Laikipia, Nakuru, Trans nzoia, Kajiado, Kwale and Kilifi.
 2011- Types of animals kept are;
 Aberdeen Angus
 Galloway
 Short horn
 Hereford
 Charolais

Factors favouring Beef Farming in Kenya –kcse 2014/2017

 Extensive flatlands with natural grass.

 Moderate temperatures.
 Moderate rainfall which ensures there is enough pasture.
 Availability of watering points/sites such as swamps.
 Availability of ranching schemes which control overgrazing and the spread of pests
and diseases.
 Cultural practice of local people who carry out livestock keeping as their occupation.

Marketing of beef products in Kenya

 Small scale farmers sell their animals to butchers who slaughter and sell to consumers
after it’s inspected.
 Livestock Marketing Division is in charge of marketing beef from pastoral areas.
 It acts as a co-operative society and buys beef cattle and puts them in holding
grounds.
 The animals are vaccinated against diseases and then sold to individual butchers or to
slaughter houses through auction.
 Pastoralists sell to middlemen who transport livestock to big towns like Nairobi.
 Problems Facing Beef farming in Kenya.

 High temperatures in the country makes it hard to rare cattle of high quality.
 Unreliable rainfall leads to inadequate pasture for cattle.
 Thin soils leads to poor natural grass unsuitable for the quality animals.
 Overstocking by pastoralists ruin pasture land leaving less for beef farming.
 Pests like ticks and tse tse fly attack animals lowering the yields.
 Diseases like nagana, rinderpest, foot and mouth affects the animals lowering yields.
 Competition from other land use activities like wildlife hence affecting beef farming.
 Poor quality animals due to poor pastures hence low profit margins.
 Inadequate capital for development of the beef industry.

Measures taken by the Kenyan government to improve beef farming –kcse 2008
 It encourages the cross-breeding of traditional cattle breeds with exotic ones to
improve the quality of animals.
 It strengthens community education to teach beef cattle farmers better livestock
management.
 It sets up demonstration ranches for farmers to learn new trends in livestock
management.
 It has constructed roads to make services accessible to farmers/make transportation of
animals to markets easier.
 It encourages the replacement of the coarse grass with nutritious pasture to improve
the quality of animals.
 It has sunk boreholes/dug wells/constructed dams to provide water for the animals.
 It has revived Kenya Meat Commission (KMC), a government parastatal that buys
animals from farmers for slaughter.

Significance of Beef farming in Kenya –kcse 2017

 It’s a source of foreign exchange when beef and beef products are exported.
 It provides employment to many people working in ranches, slaughter houses,
butcheries who earns income improving their living standards.
 It saves foreign exchange by supplying beef for local consumption.
 It has promoted development of industries by providing raw materials e.g. shoe
making.
 The governments earn revenue from tax levied on beef products.
 It leads to development of roads that ease movement of goods.
 It leads to development of towns Kajiado which are centre for economic activity.
 It leads to development of social amenities improving the living standards of people.
 2. BEEF FARMING IN ARGENTINA.

 Main areas- The Pampas e.g. Fray Bentos, Rosario, Buenos Aires, Bahia Blanco
 Types of beef animal breeds kept- Short horn, Aberdeen Angus, Galloway,
Hereford, Brangus

Physical conditions favouring beef farming in Argentina.

 Extensive pampas grasslands which provide good natural grazing landscape and
allows cattle to graze freely.
 Deep, well drained, volcanic soils from the slopes of Andes which have given rise to
good natural pasture.
 Moderate and well distributed reliable rainfall for the growth of pasture.
 Moderate temperatures which enable grass to grow throughout the year.
 Gently sloping/undulating landscape provide suitable site for grazing.
 Maritime/warm and wet climate make cattle grazing possible throughout the year.

Human conditions favouring beef farming in Argentina.

 High quality exotic breeds such as Short horn and Hereford which mature faster and
have quality and quantity beef.
 Availability of alfalfa which matures faster and is more nutritious which has been
planted to replace natural grass.
 Well-developed roads like the railway network used for movement of beef cattle from
ranches to factories and to the markets.
 Availability of large-scale ranches which are well managed and mechanized.
 Availability of adequate capital making it possible to have refrigeration for proper
storage of beef products.
 Availability of local markets in E.U and U.S.A.

Problems facing Beef farming in Argentina.

a) Diseases like foot and mouth which affect animals lowering yields.
b) Stiff competition from other leading beef producers like New Zealand, US and
Australia.
c) Drought which affects beef farming.

Significance of Beef farming in Argentina

 It’s a source of foreign exchange when beef and beef products are exported.
 It provides employment to many people working in ranches, slaughter houses,
butcheries who earns income improving their living standards.
 It saves foreign exchange by supplying beef for local consumption.
 It has promoted development of industries by providing raw materials e.g. shoe
making.
 The governments earn revenue from tax levied on beef products.
 It leads to development of roads that ease movement of goods.

Similarities between beef farming in Argentina and Kenya –kcse 2011

 In both countries, the cattle are mainly reared in areas of natural pasture/grazing.
 In both countries beef cattle are reared mainly in ranches.
 Indigenous and exotic breeds are kept in both countries.
 Beef animals kept are similar e.g. Aberdeen Angus, Hereford, etc.
 Beef cattle/products is for local and export market in both countries.
 There is employment of modern methods of farming in both countries e.g. cross
breeding, AI and research.
 Both countries experience the problem of pests and diseases.

Differences between beef farming in Kenya and Argentina.

 Argentina has extensive natural pastures/pampas while Kenya has inadequate

pastures.
 There is a high local demand/market for beef in Argentina while there is low local
demand/ market for beef in Kenya.
 Pests and diseases are a major problem in Kenya while in Argentina the problem has
been controlled.
 In Argentina beef farming is mainly carried out in extensive ranches while in Kenya
it’s mainly carried out by small scale farmers and ranches are few.
 Farmers in Argentina have more access to capital while Kenyan farmers have
inadequate capital.
 There is a well-developed transport network in Argentina while Kenyan roads are
impassable which hinders transport to markets.
 Beef farming is more highly mechanized in Argentina while in Kenya beef farming is
less mechanized.
 Kenya has few beef processing factories while Argentina has many beef processing
factories.
 In Kenya both exotic and local breeds are kept while in Argentina, most of the breeds
are exotic.
 In Argentina, farmers also grow crops like wheat while in Kenya farmers practice
only beef farming.
 In Kenya, most of beef products are for local consumption with little for export while
in Argentina most of beef products are for export with little sold for in the local
market.
Quiz:-kcse 2017- Give reasons why beef production is higher in
Argentina than Kenya (6mks)

 Argentina has larger/better organized/managed ranches than in Kenya.

 Argentina has high quality cattle.
 Argentina has better methods of animal husbandry/control of
diseases/extension services than Kenya.
 Argentina has more nutritious grass/fodder/alfafa.
 Argentina ranches are well watered by wind pumps which reduces
movement/weight loss/in search for water.
 Argentina has more capital for intensive care.
 Argentina has well developed railway/road network that
transports beef cattle to the factories.
 Argentina has high advanced technology/external market for beef than
Kenya.
 Argentina has large local market for beef.