Solution

Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances on molecular level. The

constituent of the mixture present in a smaller amount is called the Solute and the one present
in a larger amount is called the Solvent.
For example, when a smaller amount of sugar (solute) is mixed with water (solvent), a
homogeneous solution in water is obtained. In this solution, sugar molecules are uniformly
dispersed in molecules of water.

CONCENTRATION OF A SOLUTION
The concentration of a solution is defined as: the amount of solute present in a given amount
of solution.
Concentration is generally expressed as the quantity of solute in a unit volume of solution.

Concentration = Quantity of Solute ÷ Volume of Solution

A solution containing a relatively low concentration of solute is called Dilute solution. A

solution of high concentration is called Concentrated solution.

WAYS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION

There are several ways of expressing concentration of a solution:

(a) Percent by weight

(b) Mole fraction

(c) Molarity
(d) Molality

(e) Normality

Percent by Weight

It is the weight of the solute as a per cent of the total weight of the solution. That is,

% by weight of solute = (Wt. of solute ÷ Wt. of Solution) × 100

For example, if a solution of HCl contains 36 per cent HCl by weight, it has 36 g of HCl for
100g of solution.

SOLVED PROBLEM. What is the per cent by weight of NaCl if 1.75 g of NaCl is dissolved
in 5.85 g of water.
SOLUTION

Wt. of solute (NaCl) = 1.75 g

Wt. of solvent (H2O) = 5.85 g

∴ Wt. of solution = 1.75 + 5.85 = 7.60 g

Hence concentration of NaCl % by weight = (1.75÷7.60)×100 = 23.0

MOLE FRACTION

A simple solution is made of two substances: one is the solute and the other solvent. Mole
fraction, X, of solute is defined as the ratio of the number of moles of solute and the total
number of moles of solute and solvent. Thus,

Xsolute = Moles of solute ÷ (Moles of solute + Moles of solvent)

If n represents moles of solute and N number of moles of solvent,

Xsolute = n ÷ (n+N)

Notice that mole fraction of solvent would be:

XSolvent = N ÷ (n+N)

Mole fraction is unitless and Xsolute + XSolvent = 1

SOLVED PROBLEM. Calculate the mole fraction of HCl in a solution of hydrochloric acid
in water, containing 36 g of HCl and 64 g of H2O

SOLUTION

Number of Moles of HCl = (36 g HCl) × (1mol HCl ÷ 36.5 g HCl) = 0.99

Number of Moles of H2O= (64 g H2O) × (1mol H2O ÷ 18 g H2O) = 3.55

XHCl= 0.99 ÷ (0.99+3.55) = 0.218

MOLARITY

In current practice, concentration is most often expressed as molarity. Molarity (symbol M) is

defined as the number of moles of solute per litre of solution. If n is the number of moles of
solute and V litres the volume of solution,

Molarity = Moles of Solute ÷ Volume in litres

M = n ÷ V (in litres)………(1)

For one mole of solute dissolved in one litre of solution M = 1 i.e., molarity is one. Such a
solution is called 1M (read “1 molar”). A solution containing two moles of solute in one litre is
2M (“two molar”); and so on. As evident from expression (1), unit of molarity is mol litre-1.
Calculation of Molarity

Molarity of a solution can be calculated if moles of solute (n) and volume V (in litres) are
known. When the amount of solute is given in grams and its molecular weight is MW, it can be
converted to moles:

n= x g × (1 mol ÷ MW g)

Substituting in equation 1,

M = {x g × (1 mol ÷ MW g)} ÷ V

SOLVED PROBLEM 1. What is the molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 75.5 g of

pure KOH in 540 ml of solution.

SOLUTION

Molecular mass of KOH = 39.1 + 16.0 + 1.0 = 56.1

Calculation of moles of KOH:

75.5g KOH × (1 mol ÷ 56.1 g) = 1.35mol

Calculation of volume in litres:

540ml × (1 litre ÷ 1000 ml) = 0.540litres

Calculation of Molarity:

M = n ÷ V = 1.35 mol ÷ 0.540 litre = 2.50M

Thus, the solution is 2.50 M.

MOLALITY
Molality of a solution (symbol m) is defined as the number of moles of solute per kilogram
of solvent:
Molality (m) = Moles of solute ÷ Mass of solvent in kilograms

Notice the difference between molality and molarity. Molality is defined in terms of mass of
solvent while molarity is defined in terms of volume of solution.
SOLVED PROBLEM. What is the molality of a solution prepared by dissolving 5.0 g of
toluene (C7H8) in 225 g of benzene (C6H6)?
SOLUTION

Calculation of number of moles of solute:

Molecular mass of toluene = 12 × 7 + 1 × 8 = 92

No. of moles 5 g of toluene = 5 ÷ 92 = 0.0543

Mass of solvent in kg = 225 g ÷ 1000 = 0.225 g
Molality = 0.0543 ÷ 0.225 = = 0.24 m

NORMALITY

Normality of a solution (symbol N) is defined as number of gram equivalents of solute per litre
of the solution.

Normality (N) = Number of gram equivalents of solute ÷ Volume of solution in litres

Thus, if 40 g of NaOH (eq. wt. = 40) be dissolved in one litre of solution, normality of the
solution is one and the solution is called 1N (one-normal). A solution containing 4.0 g of NaOH
is 1/10 N or 0.1 N.

SOLVED PROBLEM. 5 g of NaCl is dissolved in 1000 g of water. If the density of the

resulting solution is 0.997 g per ml, calculate the molality, molarity, and normality of the solute,
assuming volume of the solution is equal to that of solvent.

SOLUTION

Number of moles of NaCl = Mass of NaCl ÷ Molecular mass NaCl = 5÷58.5 = 0.0854

Molality = Moles of solute ÷ Mass of solvent in kilograms = 0.0854 ÷ 1 = 0.0854 m

Volume of the solution = Mass of solution in grams ÷ Density in gm per ml

= (1000 + 5)÷ 0.997 = 1008 ml = 1.008 litre

Molarity = Moles of Solute ÷ Volume in litres = 0.0854÷1.008 = 0.0847M

Normality = Number of gram equivalents of solute ÷ Volume of solution in litres

= 0.0854÷ 1.008 = 0.0847 N

Classification of Solution:

Based on the Physical State of the Solvent and Solute This classification categorizes solutions
by their phase of matter, combining three solute phases (solid, liquid, gas) with three solvent
phases (solid, liquid, gas) to form nine types of solutions:

• Solid Solutions:

o Solid-Solid: Alloys like brass (zinc and copper).

o Liquid-Solid: NaCl in water (solid solute in liquid solvent).

o Gas-Solid: Hydrogen in palladium.

• Liquid Solutions:
o Solid-Liquid: Sugar dissolved in water.
o Liquid-Liquid: Alcohol in water.
 o Gas-Liquid: Carbon dioxide in water (carbonated drinks).

• Gaseous Solutions:

o Gas-Gas: Air (a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and other gases).

Based on the Amount of Solute Dissolved This classification describes the capacity of the
solvent to dissolve the solute:

• Unsaturated Solution:

Contains less solute than the maximum amount that can be dissolved in the solvent at a specific
temperature.

• Saturated Solution:
Contains the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in the solvent at a given
temperature.

• Supersaturated Solution:
Contains more dissolved solute than a saturated solution, often achieved by carefully cooling
a saturated solution.
Based on the Nature of the Solvent

This classification distinguishes solutions based on whether water or another liquid is the
solvent:

• Aqueous Solution: A solution where water is the solvent, such as a sugar solution.

• Non-Aqueous Solution: A solution where the solvent is a liquid other than water, like
benzene or alcohol.

Ideal Solution and Real Solution:

An ideal solution perfectly follows Raoult's Law, meaning the solute-solvent intermolecular
forces are equal to the solute-solute and solvent-solvent forces, resulting in no heat or volume
change upon mixing (ΔH_mix = 0, ΔV_mix = 0).

A real solution deviates from Raoult's Law because solute-solvent interactions differ from
pure component interactions, leading to either positive deviations or negative deviations, with
non-zero ΔH_mix and ΔV_mix.

HENRY’S LAW

The relationship between pressure and solubility of a gas in a particular solvent was
investigated by William Henry (1803). He gave a generalisation which is known as Henry’s
Law. It may be stated as: for a gas in contact with a solvent at constant temperature,
concentration of the gas that dissolves in the solvent is directly proportional to the pressure of
the gas.

Mathematically, Henry’s Law may be expressed as

C∝P

or C = k P

where P = pressure of the gas; C = concentration of the gas in solution; and k = proportionality

constant known as Henry’s Law Constant. The value of k depends on the nature of the gas
and solvent, and the units of P and C used.

Limitations of Henry’s Law

It applies closely to gases with nearly ideal behaviour.

(1) at moderate temperature and pressure.

(2) if the solubility of the gas in the solvent is low.

(3) the gas does not react with the solvent to form a new species. Thus ammonia (or HCl)
which react with water do not obey Henry’s Law.

NH3 + H2O 􀁕 NH4+ + OH-

(4) the gas does not associate or dissociate on dissolving in the solvent.

SOLVED PROBLEM 1. The solubility of pure oxygen in water at 20°C and 1.00 atmosphere
pressure is 1.38 × 10-3 mole/litre. Calculate the concentration of oxygen at 20°C and partial
pressure of 0.21 atmosphere.

SOLUTION

Calculation of k:

C=kP

or, k = C÷P
Substituting values for pure oxygen,

k = (1.38 × 10-3 mole / litre) ÷ 1.00atm = 1.38 × 10-3 (mole / litre)/ atm

Calculation of Concentration of O2 at given pressure

C=kP

Concentration of O2 = 1.38 × 10-3 (mole / litre)/atm × 0.21atm = = 2.9 × 10–4 mole/litre.

The distribution law (or Nernst distribution law)

The distribution law (or Nernst distribution law) in physical pharmacy states that when a solute
is distributed between two immiscible solvents, the ratio of its concentrations in each solvent
is constant at a given temperature, provided the solute exists in the same molecular form in
both phases. This constant ratio is called the distribution coefficient (KD) and is defined as the
concentration of the solute in the first solvent (C1) divided by its concentration in the second
solvent (C2). The law is fundamental to applications like solvent extraction and partition
chromatography, and is used to determine a solute's solubility, dissociation, or association.

The law's principles

• Distribution at equilibrium: When a solute is added to two immiscible solvents, it

will move between them until the rate of molecules moving from solvent 1 to solvent 2
equals the rate of molecules moving from solvent 2 to solvent 1. At this point,
equilibrium is reached.

• The ratio is constant: At equilibrium, the ratio of the concentration of the solute in
each solvent is constant, as long as the temperature remains the same and the solute's
molecular state doesn't change.
• The distribution coefficient (KD): This ratio is expressed as KD = C1/C2 where C1 and
C2 are the concentrations of the solute in solvent 1 and solvent 2, respectively, at
equilibrium.

• Solubility: The law can also be expressed in terms of the solute's solubility in each
solvent: C1/C2 = S1/S2, where S1 and S2 are the solubilities in the two solvents.

Important conditions for the law to apply

• The solute must be in the same molecular form (e.g., not associated or dissociated) in
both solvents.

• The temperature must remain constant throughout the experiment.

• Concentrations should generally be low to ensure the law's accuracy.

Applications in pharmacy

• Solvent extraction: Used to separate a solute from one liquid phase to another by using
an immiscible solvent. The distribution law helps determine the efficiency of the
extraction.

• Partition chromatography: A type of chromatography that relies on the differential

partitioning of a solute between a stationary and a mobile phase.

• Determining dissociation and association: If the law's prediction doesn't hold, it

indicates the solute has undergone dissociation or association in one of the solvents,
and the law can be modified to find the extent of this change.
 • Solubility determination: The law can be used to calculate the solubility of a substance
in a solvent if its solubility is known in another immiscible solvent.

Colligative properties

Colligative properties are the physical properties of a solution that depend only on the number
of solute particles present in the solution, not on their chemical nature.

Colligative properties are determined by the ratio of solute particles to solvent molecules, not
by what kind of solute is dissolved.

When a solute is dissolved in a solvent, it changes certain physical properties of the solvent.
These changes occur because the solute particles interfere with the movement and arrangement
of the solvent molecules. The more particles present, the greater the effect — regardless of
whether the solute is salt, sugar, or any other non-volatile compound.
The Four Main Colligative Properties:
▪ Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure:

When a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent, the vapour pressure of the solvent
decreases because fewer solvent molecules are available to escape into the vapour phase.

▪ Elevation in Boiling Point:

The boiling point of a solution is higher than that of the pure solvent.

▪ Depression in Freezing Point:

The freezing point of a solution is lower than that of the pure solvent.

▪ Osmotic Pressure:
Osmotic pressure is the pressure required to stop the flow of solvent molecules through a
semipermeable membrane separating the pure solvent from the solution.

Definition of Osmotic Pressure:

Osmotic pressure is the minimum pressure that must be applied to a solution to stop the
flow of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane from the pure solvent into
the solution.

Explanation:
When a solution and its pure solvent are separated by a semipermeable membrane (which
allows only solvent molecules to pass through), the solvent naturally flows into the solution
due to the difference in [Link] flow continues until the pressure on the solution
side increases enough to stop further movement — that opposing pressure is called the osmotic
pressure (π).
Determination / Formula:

For dilute solutions, osmotic pressure is given by an equation similar to the gas law:

π=CRT

where,
π = osmotic pressure

C = molar concentration of the solute (mol/L)

R = universal gas constant (0.0821 L·atm·mol⁻¹·K⁻¹)

T = absolute temperature (in Kelvin)

Example:

If a 0.1 M sugar solution is at 27°C (300 K):

π = C R T = 0.1 × 0.0821 × 300 = 2.463 atm

So, the osmotic pressure of the solution is 2.46 atm.