CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Language Proficiency
2.2.1 Definition and Components of Language Proficiency
2.2.2 The Role of Language Proficiency in Education
2.2.3 Language Proficiency among Nigerian Students
2.3 Basic Science Achievement
2.3.1 Definition and Scope of Basic Science
2.3.2 Factors Affecting Students’ Achievement in Basic Science
2.3.3 Assessment of Academic Achievement in Basic Science
2.4 Relationship Between Language Proficiency and Academic Achievement
2.4.1 Theoretical Perspectives on Language and Learning
2.4.2 Empirical Studies on Language Proficiency and Science Achievement
2.4.3 Impact of Language Barriers on Science Learning
2.5 Language Skills and Their Influence on Basic Science Learning
2.5.1 Reading Skills and Science Comprehension
2.5.2 Writing Skills and Expression of Scientific Knowledge
2.5.3 Speaking Skills and Classroom Interaction in Science
2.5.4 Listening Skills and Understanding Science Instructions
2.6 Challenges of Language Proficiency in Basic Science Education
2.6.1 Linguistic Challenges Faced by Students in Lagos State
2.6.2 Instructional Challenges for Teachers
2.6.3 Curriculum and Language Integration Issues
2.7 Strategies to Improve Language Proficiency for Better Science Achievement
2.7.1 Language Support Programs in Schools
2.7.2 Teaching Approaches that Integrate Language and Science
2.7.3 Policy Implications for Language and Science Education
2.8 Summary of Literature Review

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2.1 Introduction

This chapter presents a comprehensive review of the literature related to the variables in this study,

namely language proficiency and academic achievement in Basic Science among students in Lagos

State. The review aims to provide an understanding of the concepts, theoretical perspectives,

empirical findings, and challenges surrounding the relationship between students’ proficiency in

language and their performance in Basic Science. Language proficiency is a critical foundation for

effective learning, especially in subjects that require comprehension of complex concepts such as

Basic Science.

2.2 Language Proficiency

Language proficiency refers to the ability to effectively and accurately use language across its four

core domains: reading, writing, speaking, and listening. It is not merely about knowing vocabulary

or grammar but also involves the capacity to comprehend, interpret, and produce language in

contextually appropriate ways. Proficiency in language serves as a crucial cognitive and

communicative tool, especially in educational environments where learning is largely mediated

through verbal and written interactions.

In academic settings, language proficiency enables students to engage meaningfully with

instructional materials, follow directions, formulate responses, and demonstrate understanding.

The mastery of language allows learners to construct knowledge, articulate ideas clearly, and

participate actively in both formal and informal learning scenarios. According to Omar et al.

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(2022), students with high language proficiency tend to exhibit stronger academic performance

because they are better equipped to process complex information, interact with teachers and peers,

and express their thoughts in structured and coherent ways.

The significance of language proficiency becomes even more pronounced in science education,

where learners are required to understand technical vocabulary, follow logical explanations, and

present findings in a clear and precise manner. In Basic Science, for instance, students must grasp

scientific terminologies, describe experimental procedures, interpret data, and draw conclusions

all of which depend heavily on their command of language. Akintunde and Bello (2021)

emphasized that students with low language skills often struggle not because they lack scientific

reasoning, but because they find it difficult to express or interpret scientific information correctly.

Additionally, the relationship between language proficiency and academic performance is not

uniform; it is influenced by socio-cultural and individual factors such as home language

environment, exposure to literacy activities, teacher support, and classroom language practices. A

recent study by Nguyen & Olayemi (2023) revealed that students taught in their second language

without adequate linguistic support show significantly lower achievement in science subjects

compared to those learning in their first language or those receiving language scaffolding in

instruction.

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2.2.1 Definition and Components of Language Proficiency

Language proficiency is generally defined as an individual's ability to use a language fluently,

accurately, and appropriately in various contexts. It involves not just the mechanical use of

grammar and vocabulary, but also the cognitive and communicative skills required to process and

produce language in meaningful ways. Language proficiency allows individuals to understand,

interpret, and convey information both orally and in writing. According to Lee and García (2022),

this proficiency is a dynamic and multidimensional concept that includes linguistic knowledge,

communicative competence, and the ability to engage in academic discourse.

One of the most widely accepted frameworks for understanding language proficiency is offered

by Cummins (2020), who identifies four core components: listening, speaking, reading, and

writing. These skills are interdependent and essential for both day-to-day communication and

academic success. In an educational context, particularly in subjects such as Basic Science, a

student’s level of proficiency in these domains can significantly impact their ability to understand

content, complete assignments, and perform well in assessments.

Listening is a receptive skill that enables learners to comprehend spoken language. It plays a

critical role in classroom interactions, where students are expected to follow instructions, grasp

explanations, and respond appropriately to verbal cues. Without adequate listening skills, learners

may miss key concepts, which can affect their understanding of lessons and instructions. Chikwe

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and Danladi (2023) highlight that poor listening skills are linked to reduced classroom engagement

and lower academic performance.

Speaking, on the other hand, involves the ability to articulate thoughts clearly and coherently. It

allows students to participate in discussions, ask questions, give presentations, and explain

scientific concepts orally. This is particularly relevant in science classes where learners are

encouraged to describe observations, hypothesize outcomes, and discuss experiments. Ali and

Thompson (2021) found that students with strong speaking abilities tend to be more confident in

their learning environments and are more likely to succeed in oral assessments and collaborative

tasks.

Reading proficiency is another vital component. It involves decoding written texts and

constructing meaning from them. In science education, this skill is especially important for

understanding complex materials, including textbooks, laboratory instructions, and test questions.

Students with strong reading skills can interpret scientific terms and comprehend detailed

explanations. Musa and Adeyemo (2022) observed that a lack of reading proficiency is often a

barrier to students’ understanding of science content, leading to weaker academic outcomes.

Writing is the productive counterpart to reading and involves expressing ideas in a coherent,

structured, and grammatically correct manner. In Basic Science, students are often required to

write reports, summarize findings, and explain processes. Effective writing skills are essential for

organizing scientific thoughts and conveying them accurately. Rahman and Essien (2023) noted

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that students who struggle with writing often face challenges in articulating what they have

learned, which adversely affects their grades and overall academic performance.

2.2.2 The Role of Language Proficiency in Education

Language proficiency plays a central role in the educational process, acting as the bedrock upon

which all forms of learning are constructed. In academic settings, particularly in content-heavy

subjects like science, students rely on their ability to understand, interpret, and communicate using

the language of instruction. The development of literacy and academic discourse skills is essential

for learners to fully access the curriculum and engage meaningfully with instructional content. As

noted by Anderson and Nagy (2022), students with strong language proficiency are more likely to

comprehend complex ideas, connect prior knowledge with new information, and engage in

analytical thinking.

In the context of science education, language proficiency becomes even more critical. Science

subjects often involve abstract concepts, specialized vocabulary, and logical reasoning that require

precise use of language. Students must be able to understand scientific terms, follow detailed

explanations, describe processes, and justify conclusions in both spoken and written forms. The

ability to navigate this language-rich environment influences how effectively learners can interpret

scientific materials and perform tasks such as conducting experiments, writing reports, and

answering test questions. Khan & Ojo (2023) emphasize that students who struggle with the

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language of instruction often misinterpret scientific information, resulting in misconceptions and

lower academic performance.

In Nigeria, the official language of instruction in secondary schools is English, which adds another

layer of complexity for many students whose first language is not English. Language proficiency

in English therefore becomes a gatekeeper to academic success, particularly in science and other

technical subjects. Afolabi and Adebayo (2022) argue that a lack of English language proficiency

significantly hampers students’ ability to understand lesson content, communicate responses, and

meet academic expectations. This linguistic barrier often leads to underperformance, even among

students who possess the cognitive ability to excel.

Furthermore, poor language skills affect students’ classroom participation and assessment

outcomes. Students with limited proficiency may avoid engaging in class discussions due to fear

of making errors, which limits their opportunities for collaborative learning and feedback. They

may also find it difficult to interpret examination questions or express their understanding clearly

in writing. According to Okonkwo & Musa (2021), these challenges can lead to increased anxiety,

reduced academic confidence, and ultimately, lower achievement across subjects.

The impact of language proficiency on education is so significant that it is now widely recognized

as a key predictor of students’ academic success. Scholars such as Gbadegesin (2021) and Onwu

and Sehoole (2020) have established strong correlations between language skills and educational

attainment, arguing that interventions aimed at improving language proficiency can lead to

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substantial improvements in academic performance. As such, enhancing students’ language skills

especially in the language of instruction should be an integral part of educational strategies aimed

at improving learning outcomes.

2.2.3 Language Proficiency among Nigerian Students

In Nigeria, language proficiency remains a significant educational concern that continues to affect

students’ academic performance across various disciplines, including Basic Science. As English is

the official language of instruction in Nigerian secondary schools, students are expected to learn,

think, and express themselves in English regardless of their linguistic background. However, a

large proportion of students enter secondary school with limited English proficiency, primarily due

to differences in their early language exposure, regional dialects, and socio-economic status.

According to Eze and Okeke (2023), many Nigerian learners begin formal education with minimal

prior experience in English, especially those from rural communities where indigenous languages

dominate daily communication.

The disparity in English language proficiency is further compounded by Nigeria’s complex

multilingual landscape. With over 500 indigenous languages spoken across the country, most

students grow up in environments where code-switching between English and native languages is

common. While this linguistic flexibility can be advantageous in informal communication, it often

interferes with the acquisition and consistent use of academic English. Olawale and Adekunle

(2020) explain that such constant switching leads to grammatical inconsistencies, limited

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vocabulary, and confusion with subject-specific terminology particularly in technical subjects like

Basic Science that rely on precision and clarity.

Several studies conducted in urban centers such as Lagos State have demonstrated a clear link

between limited English proficiency and poor academic performance, particularly in science-

related subjects. For instance, Ibrahim and Yusuf (2023) found that junior secondary school

students in Lagos who had low proficiency in English struggled with reading comprehension,

understanding scientific explanations, and following instructions in practical classes. These

students were often unable to accurately interpret questions during assessments or communicate

their ideas effectively in written assignments, resulting in reduced academic achievement.

Moreover, the impact of socio-economic factors on language acquisition cannot be overlooked.

Students from low-income households often have limited access to reading materials, educational

support at home, or language-enriching experiences such as storytelling, formal tutoring, and

digital learning tools. This lack of exposure weakens their language development and places them

at a disadvantage compared to their peers from more privileged backgrounds. Adewale and Taiwo

(2022) noted that students in public schools, particularly in under-resourced areas, tend to perform

lower in language-based assessments due to inadequate teaching materials and insufficient teacher

training in language-sensitive instruction.

Given the central role of English in Nigeria’s educational system, improving students' proficiency

in the language is essential for boosting their academic outcomes. This is particularly true for Basic

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Science, where comprehension, articulation, and engagement are deeply tied to language skills.

Addressing this challenge requires targeted interventions such as intensive English language

support programs, teacher training on content-language integration, and the development of

instructional materials that are linguistically accessible. As Umar and Musa (2021) suggest,

bridging the language gap is not only crucial for improving science learning outcomes but also for

ensuring equity and inclusivity within the Nigerian education system.

2.3 Basic Science Achievement

Basic Science is a core subject in the Nigerian junior secondary school curriculum, designed to lay

the groundwork for students’ understanding of the natural world and to stimulate interest in

scientific inquiry. It serves as a bridge between elementary science taught in primary school and

more specialized sciences such as Biology, Chemistry, and Physics introduced at the senior

secondary level. The subject aims to equip learners with foundational knowledge, problem-solving

abilities, and critical thinking skills that are essential for success in science-related fields.

According to Ogunleye and Yusuf (2022), Basic Science is crucial in shaping students’ scientific

attitudes and preparing them for future engagement in science, technology, engineering, and

mathematics (STEM).

Understanding what constitutes achievement in Basic Science requires a consideration of both

cognitive and practical competencies. Achievement in this subject typically involves a student’s

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ability to understand scientific concepts, apply theoretical knowledge to real-world problems,

conduct experiments, interpret data, and communicate findings effectively. It also includes

demonstrating curiosity, a willingness to explore, and the ability to reason logically. Abdullahi and

Edem (2023) point out that achievement in Basic Science goes beyond rote memorization; it

encompasses conceptual understanding, inquiry skills, and the application of knowledge in novel

contexts.

Several factors influence students’ achievement in Basic Science. These include the quality of

teaching, availability of instructional resources, students’ attitudes toward science, home

background, and, notably, language proficiency. Because Basic Science requires students to

understand specific terminologies, follow scientific procedures, and write structured reports, their

level of language competence plays a significant role in how well they perform. Iroegbu and Bello

(2021) argue that a student's ability to process scientific texts and express scientific ideas clearly

is closely tied to their proficiency in the language of instruction, which in Nigeria is predominantly

English.

Assessment of academic achievement in Basic Science is typically carried out through a

combination of continuous assessments and end-of-term examinations. These assessments test

various domains of learning, including knowledge recall, conceptual understanding, application,

analysis, and synthesis. Students are expected to demonstrate their understanding through

multiple-choice questions, short and long-answer formats, practical tasks, and sometimes oral

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presentations. However, for many students, language barriers often hinder their ability to

comprehend test items or express their ideas effectively, thereby affecting their overall

performance. Chinedu and Usman (2022) observe that even students with a good grasp of scientific

concepts may score poorly if they lack the language skills needed to interpret questions or

communicate answers with clarity.

2.3.1 Definition and Scope of Basic Science

Basic Science is an introductory subject offered at the junior secondary school level in Nigeria,

aimed at providing students with a foundational understanding of the principles that govern the

natural world. It integrates key concepts from the core science disciplines Biology, Chemistry,

Physics, and Environmental Science and introduces them in simplified, relatable ways suitable for

young learners. The goal is to cultivate scientific awareness, curiosity, and the foundational skills

required for further study in science-related fields. As Nwachukwu and Okeke (2022) explain,

Basic Science is not only about imparting knowledge but also about building students’ capacity

for observation, reasoning, and evidence-based thinking.

The scope of Basic Science is intentionally broad and interdisciplinary. It covers a wide range of

topics, including but not limited to: the nature of matter and energy, forces and motion, ecosystems

and environmental sustainability, the human body and health, basic astronomy, and simple

chemical and physical reactions. These themes are designed to reflect real-life contexts, thereby

helping students connect scientific concepts to their everyday experiences. According to Ajayi and

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Adeyemi (2023), this broad coverage is essential for preparing students to make informed

decisions, engage responsibly with science in society, and develop the foundation needed for more

specialized science subjects in senior secondary school.

A critical feature of the Basic Science curriculum is its emphasis on scientific literacy the ability

to understand and use scientific information to make personal and societal decisions. Students are

expected to develop not only content knowledge but also critical thinking, investigative skills, and

problem-solving abilities. These outcomes align with the goals of the Nigerian educational system

to produce individuals who can contribute meaningfully to national development through

innovation and technological advancement. As such, Basic Science plays a transformative role by

shaping students’ attitudes toward science and increasing their engagement with real-world

scientific challenges.

Moreover, the successful learning of Basic Science heavily depends on students’ ability to

understand scientific vocabulary and interpret technical information. Many of the concepts

introduced such as "photosynthesis," "buoyancy," or "oxidation" are linguistically demanding and

require a level of language proficiency that allows for accurate comprehension and

communication. Without strong language skills, students may struggle to grasp the meaning of

scientific texts or express their understanding during assessments and practical activities. Olatunji

and Chukwu (2021) note that linguistic barriers often limit students' ability to fully engage with

the content, thereby reducing the overall effectiveness of science instruction.

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2.3.2 Factors Affecting Students’ Achievement in Basic Science

The academic achievement of students in Basic Science is shaped by multiple interconnected

factors, generally categorized into cognitive, environmental, and instructional dimensions. Each

of these elements plays a significant role in how students understand scientific concepts, retain

knowledge, and apply what they have learned in both classroom and real-life situations.

Cognitive factors pertain to internal processes that influence learning outcomes. These include a

student’s prior knowledge, general intelligence, attention span, and most importantly, language

proficiency. Basic Science, as a content-heavy and language-dependent subject, requires learners

to process and articulate complex ideas accurately. According to Bello and Ojo (2021), students

who have a strong grasp of scientific vocabulary and possess well-developed language skills are

better able to decode technical texts, understand lesson content, and engage with assessment tasks.

In contrast, learners with limited language proficiency often struggle to comprehend instructions,

misinterpret scientific terms, and underperform even when they understand the underlying

concepts.

Environmental factors also play a vital role in shaping students' academic experiences. These

include the physical condition of schools, access to laboratory equipment, the quality and

availability of textbooks, and the supportiveness of the home environment. A well-resourced

school with functioning science laboratories and visual learning aids offers students the

opportunity to conduct experiments and visualize abstract scientific phenomena. Eze and Okeke

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(2023) highlight that students in under-equipped schools often face difficulties in grasping key

scientific concepts due to the lack of practical exposure and engagement. Similarly, a stable and

supportive home environment where parents value education and provide learning materials can

significantly enhance students’ motivation and performance in science.

Instructional factors refer to the quality of teaching and the methods employed in delivering

content. This includes the teacher’s qualifications, pedagogical skills, level of subject mastery, and

the nature of interactions within the classroom. Teachers who use student-centered approaches

such as inquiry-based learning, visual aids, and group activities often foster deeper engagement

and better comprehension among learners. Akinola and Adepoju (2022) note that the instructional

style used in science education can either stimulate interest and understanding or lead to confusion

and disengagement. Moreover, the ability of teachers to adapt their instruction to the language

level of their students is critical in multilingual classrooms where English may not be the learners'

first language.

Among all these influencing factors, language proficiency consistently emerges as a critical

determinant of students' success in Basic Science. Mastery of the language of instruction is

essential for accessing lesson content, participating in discussions, reading textbooks, and

responding to examination questions. Students who cannot interpret scientific texts or express their

thoughts clearly in English are at a disadvantage, regardless of their intellectual potential. As Umar

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and Musa (2021) emphasize, improving language skills can serve as a catalyst for better

performance in science subjects, particularly in regions where English is not the native language.

Empirical research supports this connection. A study conducted in Lagos State by Ibrahim and

Yusuf (2023) demonstrated a strong correlation between students’ English language proficiency

and their achievement in Basic Science. The study found that students who performed well in

English were also more likely to excel in science, suggesting that linguistic competence enables

learners to better process and communicate scientific information.

2.3.3 Assessment of Academic Achievement in Basic Science

Academic achievement in Basic Science is evaluated through a structured assessment process that

typically includes continuous assessments, practical activities, and summative examinations.

These assessment methods are designed to measure a student’s grasp of scientific concepts, ability

to apply scientific principles, and practical competence in performing experiments. In Nigerian

schools, both internal and external assessment bodies are involved in this process. Internal

assessments are conducted by schools periodically through class tests, assignments, quizzes, and

project work. External assessments, particularly those administered by national examination

bodies such as the West African Examinations Council (WAEC) and National Examinations

Council (NECO), are high-stakes evaluations that determine student progression and certification.

The nature of these assessments goes beyond testing rote memorization. They are structured to

examine multiple levels of cognitive engagement, such as understanding, application, analysis,

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and problem-solving. According to Okafor and Nwankwo (2020), Basic Science assessments

typically consist of both objective and essay-type questions, as well as practical tasks requiring

students to observe, record, and explain scientific phenomena. These tasks demand not only

scientific reasoning but also strong language skills for interpreting questions and articulating

responses clearly and accurately.

Language proficiency, therefore, plays a pivotal role in how students perform in these assessments.

Regardless of a student’s conceptual understanding, poor command of the language of instruction

usually English can hinder their ability to decode test instructions, comprehend questions, or

communicate answers effectively. As noted by Onwu and Sehoole (2020), many students who

possess adequate knowledge of science concepts still struggle in examinations due to challenges

with academic language, particularly scientific vocabulary and written expression. This highlights

the dual demand of Basic Science assessments: cognitive competence in science and linguistic

competence in English.

Effective assessment practices not only serve as tools for measuring achievement but also function

as a feedback mechanism for both teachers and students. When properly designed and

implemented, assessments help identify specific areas where students face learning difficulties be

they conceptual misunderstandings or language-related barriers. This information enables teachers

to adjust instruction, provide targeted support, and implement remedial strategies. Gbadegesin

(2021) emphasizes that regular and diagnostic assessments are crucial for identifying the impact

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of variables such as language proficiency on students’ academic performance, especially in

linguistically diverse classrooms.

Moreover, the growing emphasis on authentic assessment which includes activities such as

experiments, science projects, and oral presentations is gradually complementing traditional

examination formats. These approaches allow students to demonstrate understanding in more

practical and less language-intensive ways, offering more equitable opportunities for learners with

varying levels of language proficiency. Adebayo and Ishola (2022) argue that diversified

assessment strategies not only improve student engagement but also provide a more holistic view

of learners’ competencies.

2.4 Relationship Between Language Proficiency and Academic Achievement

The link between language proficiency and academic achievement has attracted considerable

attention from researchers and educators alike, largely due to the central role language plays in all

aspects of learning. Language is not only a tool for communication but also a medium through

which thinking, reasoning, and knowledge construction occur. For students to succeed

academically particularly in content-heavy subjects like Basic Science they must possess the

linguistic skills necessary to process information, engage in classroom discourse, and demonstrate

understanding in both oral and written forms. According to Chikwe and Thompson (2022),

language proficiency is one of the most consistent predictors of academic performance across all

subject areas.

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The theoretical foundation for understanding this relationship is rooted in educational psychology

and sociolinguistics. One of the most influential theories is Cummins’ (2000) distinction between

Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency

(CALP). While BICS refers to everyday language used in social contexts, CALP represents the

language necessary for academic learning characterized by abstract vocabulary, complex syntax,

and subject-specific expressions. In science education, where students are often required to

interpret dense texts, follow multi-step procedures, and express logical reasoning, CALP becomes

critical. As Cummins (2020) reiterated in his recent works, students who lack CALP may appear

fluent in casual conversation but still struggle with academic tasks.

Empirical research also supports a strong correlation between language proficiency and academic

achievement. In a study conducted across several junior secondary schools in Lagos State,

Adebayo and Musa (2022) found that students with higher English language proficiency

consistently outperformed their peers in Basic Science. Their findings revealed that language-

proficient students were better able to comprehend scientific texts, follow verbal instructions

during experiments, and express scientific reasoning clearly in assessments. These skills are

essential for demonstrating understanding, especially in a subject that combines theoretical

knowledge with practical application.

The consequences of low language proficiency on academic achievement are both immediate and

long-term. Students who struggle to understand the language of instruction are more likely to

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disengage from classroom activities, experience confusion during lessons, and perform poorly on

assessments. These academic difficulties can lead to decreased self-esteem, reduced motivation,

and higher dropout rates. Nguyen and Okonkwo (2023) observed that students with limited

academic language skills often exhibit anxiety during tests and avoid participating in discussions,

further widening the performance gap between them and their more linguistically proficient peers.

Furthermore, language barriers can affect not only student learning but also teacher effectiveness.

Teachers may find it challenging to convey scientific concepts to students with poor language

comprehension, which can slow down lesson delivery and reduce classroom efficiency. Oluwole

and Ibrahim (2021) stress the need for science educators to adopt language-sensitive teaching

strategies such as scaffolding, visual aids, and simplified texts to ensure that all learners, regardless

of their language background, can access the curriculum.

2.4.1 Theoretical Frameworks

Perspectives on Language and Learning

The role of language in learning has been widely explored through various theoretical frameworks,

each offering insight into how linguistic ability affects academic development. These theories form

the foundation for understanding why language proficiency is closely linked to students'

performance, particularly in subjects like Basic Science where comprehension, reasoning, and

articulation are key.

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One of the most influential perspectives is Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, which views language

as a central tool in cognitive development. According to Vygotsky (1978), learning is inherently a

social process, and language serves as the primary medium through which knowledge is

transferred and internalized. Language enables learners to engage in dialogue, reflect on their

thinking, and solve problems collaboratively. In the context of science education, this means that

students construct meaning through guided interaction with teachers and peers, and language is

the bridge that facilitates this process. As such, students who lack language proficiency may find

it difficult to engage meaningfully in classroom discussions or interpret feedback, thereby limiting

their cognitive growth and academic progress.

Cummins’ Threshold Hypothesis also provides valuable insight into the intersection of language

and academic performance. This theory proposes that learners must attain a certain threshold of

language proficiency in the language of instruction before they can successfully acquire and use

academic content (Cummins, 2020). Below this threshold, language limitations act as a barrier to

understanding and expressing complex ideas, resulting in lower academic achievement. This is

particularly relevant in multilingual contexts like Nigeria, where many students speak indigenous

languages at home but are expected to learn and demonstrate knowledge in English. Without

reaching the necessary level of English proficiency, students may struggle to decode scientific

vocabulary, comprehend instructions, or articulate responses in Basic Science assessments.

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Additionally, Bruner’s Constructivist Theory supports the view that language plays a critical role

in constructing new knowledge. Bruner (1983) emphasized the importance of scaffolding

temporary support provided by teachers to help students grasp new concepts. Effective scaffolding

often relies on language-based strategies such as questioning, explaining, and prompting, which

require both the teacher and the student to engage in meaningful verbal interaction. In science

classrooms, these interactions are vital for explaining abstract concepts, discussing hypotheses,

and analyzing results. Limited language proficiency can therefore restrict students' ability to

benefit from scaffolded instruction.

These theoretical frameworks converge on a common point: language proficiency is not a

peripheral skill, but a foundational requirement for academic success. Whether through social

interaction, content access, or cognitive scaffolding, language serves as the medium for learning.

In Basic Science, where precision, reasoning, and clarity are essential, students' ability to use

language effectively directly impacts their ability to perform.

2.4.2 Empirical Studies on Language Proficiency and Science Achievement

Empirical studies from both local and international contexts consistently reveal a strong correlation

between language proficiency and students’ academic achievement in science subjects. These

findings reinforce the understanding that language skills are not only essential for communication

but also central to learning and performance, particularly in science education where complex

vocabulary, abstract reasoning, and precise communication are required.

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In Nigeria, several studies have confirmed that English language proficiency significantly

influences students' performance in Basic Science. Ibrahim and Yusuf (2023), in their study of

junior secondary schools in Lagos State, found that students with a strong command of English

consistently scored higher in Basic Science assessments. Their research highlighted that such

students were better at comprehending scientific passages, following procedural instructions

during practical lessons, and expressing scientific explanations clearly in both oral and written

forms. These capabilities are crucial in understanding and applying scientific knowledge

effectively.

Similarly, Eze and Okeke (2023) reported that disparities in language proficiency among students

contributed to gaps in science achievement across schools. Their research emphasized that students

from homes where English was not regularly spoken performed significantly lower on science-

related tasks due to limited exposure to academic vocabulary and sentence structures commonly

used in scientific contexts. This suggests that language exposure both inside and outside the

classroom has a profound impact on students’ capacity to process and express scientific ideas.

Further supporting this claim, Bello and Ojo (2021) identified vocabulary limitations and poor

reading comprehension as major barriers to science learning among junior secondary school

students. Their study showed that many students struggled with interpreting science examination

questions and understanding textbook content, even when they demonstrated interest in the

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subject. These findings suggest that the challenge lies not in scientific reasoning alone but in

students’ ability to navigate the language in which the science is delivered.

Beyond the Nigerian context, international studies have echoed similar concerns, especially in

multilingual or English as a Second Language (ESL) environments. Anderson and Nagy (2022)

conducted a cross-national review of science achievement in multilingual classrooms and found

that students with limited proficiency in the language of instruction faced difficulties in

comprehending scientific texts, participating in experiments, and constructing logical written

responses. The researchers concluded that language limitations not only reduced classroom

participation but also restricted the development of higher-order thinking skills necessary for

science learning.

These empirical findings provide strong evidence that language proficiency plays a critical role in

shaping students’ academic outcomes in Basic Science. They highlight the need for deliberate

efforts to strengthen students' academic language skills as a means of improving science

achievement. Strategies such as integrating language support into science lessons, developing

vocabulary-rich materials, and using visual aids to reinforce content understanding have been

suggested as practical interventions.

2.4.3 Impact of Language Barriers on Science Learning

Language barriers present significant obstacles to effective learning in science classrooms,

particularly in multilingual settings where students' home languages differ from the language of

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instruction. In Nigeria, the language of instruction in most secondary schools is English, while

many students speak indigenous languages such as Yoruba, Igbo, or Hausa at home. This linguistic

mismatch often results in limited exposure to academic English, creating a disconnect between

what students know and what they are able to express or comprehend in classroom settings.

According to Olawale and Adekunle (2020), this disconnect contributes to difficulties in

understanding scientific content, interpreting instructional materials, and responding accurately to

assessment tasks.

One of the major consequences of language barriers is the inability to comprehend science

textbooks and examination questions. Many of the concepts taught in Basic Science involve

complex terminologies, abstract reasoning, and step-by-step instructions that require a strong grasp

of academic English. Without sufficient language proficiency, students struggle to follow along,

misinterpret questions, and often provide incomplete or incorrect answers. Umar and Musa (2021)

reported that students with weak English language skills consistently underperformed in Basic

Science assessments, not because they lacked the conceptual understanding, but because they

could not accurately decode the language used in tests and classroom materials.

Language barriers also impact students’ engagement and confidence in science learning

environments. When students are uncertain about their ability to express themselves or understand

what is being taught, they tend to withdraw from classroom interactions. This reluctance to

participate affects not only their comprehension but also their ability to receive timely clarification

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from teachers or peers. As Afolabi and Adebayo (2022) observed, students who face language

challenges are less likely to ask questions, contribute to discussions, or seek help behaviors that

are critical to the learning process in inquiry-based subjects like science.

Furthermore, language limitations can negatively influence students’ attitudes toward science as a

subject. When students repeatedly encounter challenges due to language barriers, they may begin

to view science as overly difficult or inaccessible. Over time, this perception can diminish their

interest, reduce motivation, and discourage them from pursuing science-related careers. This

creates an equity gap, where language becomes a gatekeeper to educational and professional

opportunities in science and technology fields. Gbadegesin (2021) emphasizes that failure to

address these barriers contributes to the widening achievement gap between language-proficient

and language-deficient learners in Nigerian schools.

To mitigate the impact of language barriers, targeted interventions are essential. These may include

language support programs, bilingual teaching approaches, visual learning aids, and teacher

training in language-sensitive pedagogy. Integrating these strategies into science instruction

ensures that all students regardless of their linguistic background can access, engage with, and

succeed in science education. Additionally, science curriculum developers must consider

simplifying technical language where appropriate and creating content that is linguistically

accessible to learners at different proficiency levels.

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2.5 Language Skills and Their Influence on Basic Science Learning

Language skills are essential tools for academic success, particularly in content areas such as Basic

Science where students must not only comprehend complex ideas but also communicate their

understanding effectively. The four core language skills reading, writing, speaking, and listening

play distinct yet interconnected roles in shaping how learners engage with scientific content, solve

problems, and participate in classroom activities. Mastery of these skills directly influences

students’ ability to process, retain, and apply scientific knowledge.

Reading is perhaps the most frequently used language skill in science education, as students are

required to interact with a variety of texts including textbooks, laboratory manuals, instructional

materials, and assessment questions. Effective reading skills enable learners to decode scientific

vocabulary, interpret diagrams, and extract meaning from dense informational texts. Ajayi and

Adeyemi (2023) assert that students who are proficient readers are better able to understand

scientific theories and follow complex explanations, which enhances both their conceptual grasp

and examination performance. Poor reading skills, on the other hand, often result in

misunderstandings, skipped information, and difficulty in solving word-based science problems.

Writing in science is crucial for communicating findings, explaining processes, and constructing

arguments. In Basic Science classrooms, students are expected to write lab reports, respond to

open-ended questions, and provide structured explanations of scientific phenomena. Strong

writing skills help students organize their thoughts logically and present them clearly using

27
appropriate scientific language. Oluwatosin and Nwachukwu (2022) found that students who

struggle with writing often face challenges in articulating their scientific knowledge, which

negatively affects their performance in assignments and tests. Furthermore, writing enables

students to reflect on their learning and solidify their understanding of concepts through the act of

composition.

Speaking skills are essential for active participation in science classes. Students often engage in

group discussions, ask and answer questions, and present project findings. The ability to express

ideas verbally builds confidence, reinforces understanding, and creates opportunities for peer-to-

peer learning. According to Adebayo and Musa (2022), verbal expression encourages deeper

engagement with scientific content, as it requires students to process information, clarify thoughts,

and respond to feedback in real time. However, learners with weak speaking skills or limited

vocabulary may shy away from participating, thereby missing out on valuable learning

interactions.

Listening is a foundational skill that supports all other aspects of language and learning. In science

education, listening allows students to absorb verbal instructions, understand demonstrations, and

follow classroom discussions. It is particularly important during practical activities where safety

and accuracy depend on careful attention to directions. Eze and Okeke (2023) point out that active

listening enhances students' ability to grasp new content quickly and respond appropriately during

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collaborative learning. Conversely, poor listening skills may lead to confusion, errors in

experimentation, and misinterpretation of scientific explanations.

Each of these language skills functions not in isolation, but as part of an integrated set that supports

the overall learning process. For instance, reading comprehension often informs writing quality,

while listening comprehension supports effective speaking. When these skills are underdeveloped,

students encounter significant difficulties in processing and demonstrating their knowledge of

scientific content. This underscores the importance of embedding language development into

science instruction, especially in contexts where students are learning in a second language.

2.5.1 Reading Skills and Science Comprehension

Reading proficiency is a cornerstone of successful learning in Basic Science, as it enables students

to interact effectively with various scientific texts, including textbooks, lab manuals, assessment

instructions, and informational graphics. The nature of scientific texts characterized by technical

vocabulary, complex sentence structures, and concept-dense content demands more than basic

literacy. Students must be able to decode meaning, analyze information, and make inferences to

fully grasp the material being presented. According to Ajayi and Adeyemi (2023), students with

strong reading skills tend to perform better in science subjects because they are better equipped to

interpret abstract concepts, follow scientific procedures, and apply theoretical knowledge to

practical situations.

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One of the most significant challenges faced by learners in science education is the difficulty of

comprehending specialized vocabulary and syntactic patterns unique to scientific discourse.

Unlike narrative or conversational texts, science materials often present information in a

condensed, objective, and formal tone that can be difficult for students especially those with

limited exposure to academic English to understand. Bello and Ojo (2021) observed that students

with low reading comprehension frequently misinterpret key terms, skip essential information, and

misunderstand instructions, leading to errors in experiments, tests, and homework tasks. These

difficulties directly affect students' performance and confidence in Basic Science.

In the Nigerian educational context, this challenge is further compounded by the limited reading

culture and the linguistic diversity of the student population. Many students enter secondary school

with insufficient exposure to English, which is the official language of instruction, especially in

science subjects. As a result, their ability to comprehend science texts is constrained. Eze and

Okeke (2023) highlighted that in Lagos State, a significant number of junior secondary school

students struggle with reading comprehension due to inadequate vocabulary and poor background

in academic English. These language limitations hinder their ability to follow classroom

discussions, interpret questions correctly, and study independently.

Furthermore, weak reading skills also undermine students’ capacity to engage in self-directed

learning, which is increasingly emphasized in modern science education. In situations where

students are expected to conduct research, read supplementary materials, or prepare for

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assessments on their own, those with poor reading proficiency often fall behind. This impacts not

only their current academic performance but also their long-term success in science-related

disciplines that require continuous reading and learning.

Addressing this issue requires targeted interventions that enhance reading comprehension within

the science classroom. These may include explicit vocabulary instruction, guided reading

strategies, the use of visual aids to reinforce text content, and the integration of reading

comprehension exercises into science lessons. Teachers also play a crucial role by selecting texts

appropriate to students' reading levels and modeling strategies for understanding complex material.

2.5.2 Writing Skills and Expression of Scientific Knowledge

Writing is a key medium through which students demonstrate their understanding of scientific

knowledge. In Basic Science, learners are expected to explain processes, describe experimental

results, define scientific terms, and construct coherent answers in tests and assignments. This

demands not only grammatical accuracy, but also the ability to organize thoughts logically and

apply subject-specific language effectively. Umar and Musa (2021) emphasize that the precision

and clarity required in scientific writing mirror the rigor of the discipline itself, making writing an

indispensable skill in the learning process.

Students with underdeveloped writing skills often struggle to translate their thoughts into

structured, comprehensible formats, which can result in incomplete, vague, or incorrect answers.

This challenge frequently leads to poor scores, even when students understand the underlying

31
concepts. Ibrahim and Yusuf (2023) found that a significant number of underperforming students

in Basic Science assessments could not express their knowledge due to weaknesses in writing,

such as disorganized ideas, misuse of scientific terms, or poor sentence construction.

Beyond assessments, writing plays a broader role in facilitating learning. It is a tool for cognitive

processing, helping students reflect, analyze, and synthesize information. As Onwu and Sehoole

(2020) explain, the act of writing encourages learners to engage deeply with content, make

connections between ideas, and internalize scientific principles. Writing activities like lab reports,

science journals, and explanatory essays promote higher-order thinking and reinforce content

retention.

To support students, educators must provide opportunities for explicit instruction in scientific

writing, modeling how to construct definitions, write procedures, and articulate explanations.

Integrating writing across science lessons and offering regular feedback on written work are

practical strategies for improving expression and boosting performance in Basic Science.

2.5.3 Speaking Skills and Classroom Interaction in Science

Speaking is central to active participation in science classrooms, where students are encouraged to

ask questions, discuss observations, and collaborate with peers during practical activities. Through

verbal interaction, learners clarify doubts, test their understanding, and refine their ideas. Akinola

and Adepoju (2022) highlight that oral engagement helps students process and retain scientific

concepts more effectively, especially when instruction is discussion-based or exploratory.

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However, many students in Nigerian schools experience language insecurity, which limits their

willingness to speak in class. Limited vocabulary, fear of making mistakes, or unfamiliarity with

academic English can lead students to avoid participation. This reluctance reduces opportunities

for clarification and impedes the development of critical thinking and communication skills.

Afolabi and Adebayo (2022) observe that students who are passive in science classes often miss

out on interactive learning moments that support comprehension and problem-solving.

Promoting speaking in science education requires creating an environment where students feel safe

to express themselves. Teachers can foster this by encouraging open-ended questions, group

discussions, and peer-to-peer explanations, which not only build confidence but also enhance

understanding through collaborative learning. Encouraging students to explain concepts aloud,

present experiments, or engage in science debates cultivates their ability to articulate ideas and

promotes more inclusive learning experiences.

2.5.4 Listening Skills and Understanding Science Instructions

Listening is a foundational language skill that underpins learning in every subject, especially Basic

Science, where precise attention to instructions is crucial. Whether during lectures, experimental

demonstrations, or oral assessments, students must actively listen to grasp key details, processes,

and safety guidelines. Gbadegesin (2021) notes that listening enables learners to follow sequential

steps in scientific investigations, absorb explanations of complex phenomena, and make accurate

observations during practical work.

33
Yet, challenges in listening comprehension are common in classrooms, particularly when scientific

terms are unfamiliar or instruction is delivered at a rapid pace. Olawale and Adekunle (2020) report

that students who struggle with listening often miss critical parts of a lesson, leading to gaps in

understanding and errors in task execution. For instance, failing to listen attentively during an

experiment could result in procedural mistakes or incorrect conclusions.

To address these challenges, teachers must adopt listening-friendly instructional strategies such as

slowing the pace of speech, repeating key points, using visuals, and checking for understanding

through questioning. Additionally, incorporating audio materials and interactive listening tasks can

improve students’ auditory processing skills. Strengthening listening not only improves immediate

comprehension but also supports better engagement and academic performance across science

learning activities.

2.6 Challenges of Language Proficiency in Basic Science Education

Language proficiency challenges significantly impact the teaching and learning of Basic Science,

particularly in multilingual settings like Lagos State. These challenges affect both students and

educators, as well as the broader educational curriculum and its implementation.

2.6.1 Linguistic Challenges Faced by Students in Lagos State

Students in Lagos State often encounter linguistic difficulties stemming from the disparity between

their home languages and the English language used for instruction in schools. Many students

speak indigenous languages such as Yoruba, Hausa, or Igbo at home, resulting in limited exposure

34
to English prior to formal education (Olawale & Adekunle, 2020). This linguistic gap can hinder

comprehension of scientific terms and concepts that are mostly taught in English, reducing

students’ ability to fully grasp the subject matter (Afolabi & Adebayo, 2022). Moreover, students

with weak English proficiency tend to struggle with reading and interpreting science textbooks

and examination questions, which affects their academic achievement (Bello & Ojo, 2021). These

linguistic challenges necessitate tailored language support to bridge comprehension gaps and

improve science learning outcomes.

2.6.2 Instructional Challenges for Teachers

Teachers face significant challenges when delivering Basic Science lessons due to the varying

levels of language proficiency among students. Many educators report difficulties in simplifying

scientific language without compromising content accuracy, especially for students with limited

English skills (Eze & Okeke, 2023). Furthermore, teachers may lack adequate training or resources

to implement effective language strategies within science instruction (Gbadegesin, 2021). The

pressure to cover extensive curricula often limits teachers' ability to devote time to language

development, resulting in ineffective communication and reduced student engagement. These

instructional challenges hinder teachers’ capacity to foster deep understanding and affect overall

student achievement in Basic Science.

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2.6 Challenges of Language Proficiency in Basic Science Education

Language proficiency continues to pose serious challenges in the effective teaching and learning

of Basic Science, particularly in linguistically diverse environments like Lagos State. In these

settings, the interplay between multiple home languages and English the official medium of

instruction often results in communication barriers that affect both students and educators. These

challenges influence not only day-to-day classroom interactions but also impact curriculum

implementation, student assessment, and overall learning outcomes. Understanding the nature of

these challenges is crucial for developing strategies to support effective science education in

multilingual contexts.

2.6.1 Linguistic Challenges Faced by Students in Lagos State

Students in Lagos State frequently experience linguistic difficulties due to the disparity between

the language spoken at home and the English language used in school. Many learners come from

households where indigenous languages such as Yoruba, Hausa, or Igbo are dominant, meaning

they begin their formal education with limited proficiency in English the language through which

all scientific content is delivered. According to Olawale and Adekunle (2020), this mismatch

creates significant obstacles to comprehension, especially when students encounter unfamiliar

scientific terminology and complex grammatical structures typical of Basic Science textbooks.

This language gap affects students' ability to follow classroom lessons, read and understand

science texts, and interpret examination questions. As Afolabi and Adebayo (2022) note, students

36
who struggle with English often find it difficult to make sense of abstract concepts, technical

vocabulary, and procedural instructions. This not only slows their learning but also undermines

their academic confidence, often leading to disengagement or underperformance in the subject.

Furthermore, Bello and Ojo (2021) emphasize that weak language proficiency limits students’

capacity to engage with science independently, as many are unable to extract key information from

reading materials or explain their reasoning effectively in written assessments. These difficulties

compound over time, leading to persistent learning gaps and poor science achievement. Addressing

this challenge requires tailored language support, including vocabulary-building exercises,

simplified reading materials, and instructional scaffolding to help students bridge the linguistic

divide and better understand scientific content.

2.6.2 Instructional Challenges for Teachers

Teachers of Basic Science also face considerable difficulties stemming from the language

proficiency disparities within their classrooms. Educators are often required to teach students with

varying levels of English ability, making it challenging to deliver content that is both accessible

and academically rigorous. Many teachers report struggling to simplify scientific language without

diluting the meaning or compromising the accuracy of the content. According to Eze and Okeke

(2023), this balancing act becomes especially complex when trying to explain abstract concepts or

when students are expected to use precise terminology to describe observations and results.

37
Another key challenge is the lack of training and resources needed to implement effective

language-sensitive science instruction. While some teachers are adept at using bilingual examples,

visual aids, or simplified texts, many lack the pedagogical tools or professional development

necessary to do so consistently and effectively. Gbadegesin (2021) observes that science teachers

are rarely equipped with strategies to integrate language instruction into content teaching, resulting

in lessons that may alienate or overwhelm linguistically struggling students.

In addition, teachers often feel pressured to cover the syllabus within a limited time frame, which

discourages them from dedicating time to language development or differentiated instruction. As

a result, students who need additional language support may be left behind, while classroom

communication becomes less effective overall. These instructional barriers not only impact

students’ understanding of scientific concepts but also hinder the teacher's ability to engage

learners in critical thinking, experimentation, and active participation all essential components of

quality science education.

2.6.3 Curriculum and Language Integration Issues

Curriculum design and implementation also contribute to language proficiency challenges in Basic

Science education. The curriculum in Lagos State and Nigeria at large is predominantly English-

based, with insufficient accommodation for the multilingual realities of students (Umar & Musa,

2021). There is often a disconnect between language policies and curriculum goals, where

language support is minimally integrated into science teaching frameworks. This gap affects the

38
accessibility of scientific content for students with limited English proficiency, reducing their

opportunities to succeed academically (Ibrahim & Yusuf, 2023). Effective curriculum reforms that

integrate language development within science education are essential to mitigate these challenges

and enhance student achievement.

2.7 Strategies to Improve Language Proficiency for Better Science Achievement

Improving language proficiency is critical to closing the achievement gap in Basic Science,

particularly in linguistically diverse environments like Nigeria. Recognizing that science

instruction heavily depends on the use of English, especially in written and oral forms, it becomes

necessary to implement deliberate strategies that address the language needs of learners. These

strategies must be embedded both in classroom practices and school-wide interventions, supported

by effective policies and teacher training. Successful approaches focus on enhancing students’

comprehension of scientific content, expanding vocabulary, and building confidence in using

academic English to engage with science materials and tasks.

2.7.1 Language Support Programs in Schools

Language support programs are among the most effective tools for helping students overcome

linguistic barriers in Basic Science education. These programs are designed to enhance students’

proficiency in English, with a particular focus on vocabulary, comprehension, and communication

within scientific contexts. They typically include remedial English sessions, science-themed

reading comprehension workshops, subject-specific vocabulary lessons, and interactive reading

39
circles that allow students to engage actively with scientific texts. These interventions target not

only general language skills but also the specialized academic language used in science

classrooms.

According to Ajayi and Adeyemi (2023), language support initiatives tailored to science

instruction help bridge the gap between students’ existing language skills and the demands of the

curriculum. By focusing on science-specific language use, these programs help learners decode

unfamiliar terminologies, understand experimental procedures, and respond appropriately in

assessments. Students also develop a stronger foundation for interpreting texts such as lab manuals,

diagrams, and textbooks, all of which are essential components of Basic Science learning.

Evidence from Lagos State indicates that schools that introduced structured language support

programs observed noticeable improvements in students’ academic performance. Bello and Ojo

(2021) report that students who participated in remedial English and science-language workshops

showed better comprehension of scientific concepts and more accurate use of technical vocabulary

in both written and oral examinations. This improvement translated to higher grades and greater

participation in class activities, demonstrating a clear link between language proficiency and

science achievement.

In addition to formal lessons, peer-assisted learning models have also proven effective. These

involve pairing students with stronger language abilities with those who are still developing

proficiency, creating opportunities for guided practice, mutual learning, and increased confidence.

40
Such interactions foster not only academic growth but also social support, making language

learning more collaborative and less intimidating.

Language laboratories and multimedia resources are also important tools in this context. As noted

by Eze and Okeke (2023), the integration of audio-visual content, interactive exercises, and digital

reading tools helps to reinforce language learning while engaging students with scientific content

in an accessible way. These resources provide repeated exposure to scientific terms in context,

improving retention and comprehension over time.

2.7.2 Teaching Approaches that Integrate Language and Science

Teaching strategies that merge language instruction with science content delivery are essential for

improving comprehension and academic performance among students, particularly in contexts

where English is not the first language. One of the most effective models for achieving this is

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), which promotes the simultaneous acquisition

of subject knowledge and language skills. Through this approach, students learn science not just

as a subject, but as a medium for language development. Umar and Musa (2021) highlight that

CLIL-based instruction enhances both scientific literacy and English proficiency by immersing

students in meaningful, content-rich language use.

Teachers who adopt language-integrated science instruction often employ simplified explanations,

visual aids, real-life analogies, and interactive methods such as group discussions and collaborative

learning. These tools help break down scientific complexity and make lessons more accessible to

41
learners with limited language proficiency. Gbadegesin (2021) notes that using visuals such as

labeled diagrams, concept maps, and videos reduces reliance on verbal explanations alone, helping

students to form connections between language and scientific meaning.

Empirical evidence supports the effectiveness of these methods. For instance, a study conducted

by Ibrahim and Yusuf (2023) in junior secondary schools across Lagos State found that students

taught using integrated language-science methods outperformed their peers who received

traditional instruction. These students demonstrated better retention of scientific concepts,

improved vocabulary usage, and greater confidence in participating during science lessons. The

findings suggest that language-inclusive teaching practices not only enhance academic

achievement but also foster greater classroom engagement and a more inclusive learning

environment.

Such approaches also encourage active learning, where students are not passive recipients of

information but are instead involved in constructing knowledge through language use. Activities

like peer teaching, oral presentations, science journaling, and question-and-answer sessions

engage multiple language skills while reinforcing scientific concepts. By promoting interaction

and deeper processing of content, integrated teaching methods support long-term learning and

academic success.

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2.7.3 Policy Implications for Language and Science Education

Beyond classroom strategies, educational policies play a pivotal role in ensuring that language

development is prioritized within science education systems. Effective policies can provide the

structural and institutional support needed to bridge the gap between language proficiency and

science achievement. One important policy direction involves the integration of language learning

objectives into the science curriculum, ensuring that language instruction is not treated as a

separate component, but as a core aspect of subject delivery. Akinola and Adepoju (2022)

emphasize that aligning curriculum standards with both content and language goals ensures more

equitable learning outcomes for students with varying linguistic backgrounds.

In Lagos State, policies promoting multilingual education and teacher training have shown

promising results. According to Olawale and Adekunle (2020), policy interventions aimed at

enhancing teachers’ capacity to deliver language-sensitive science instruction have led to improved

student performance and engagement. These policies recognize that teacher effectiveness is closely

tied to their ability to manage linguistic diversity and adapt instructional methods to suit learners'

needs.

However, for long-term impact, these efforts must go beyond isolated reforms. Onwu and Sehoole

(2020) argue that sustainable change requires comprehensive strategies that include curriculum

reform, adequate funding, resource allocation, and continuous professional development. Such

policies should also focus on providing schools with teaching materials that support both science

43
and language learning, including bilingual glossaries, visual-rich textbooks, and digital tools

tailored to the local educational context.

Furthermore, national education frameworks should mandate language assessment as part of

science performance evaluation, ensuring that students are not unfairly disadvantaged due to

language limitations. This dual assessment model can help identify students who need language

support and guide instructional planning accordingly.

2.8 Summary of Literature Review

This chapter reviewed literature on language proficiency and Basic Science achievement,

emphasizing their interconnection, particularly among students in Lagos State. It began by

defining language proficiency and its core components reading, writing, speaking, and listening

and highlighted how these skills influence students’ ability to learn and perform in science.

The review explored the challenges faced by Nigerian students, especially those stemming from

limited English exposure, and how these linguistic barriers negatively affect academic outcomes

in Basic Science. It also examined the nature of Basic Science education, the factors influencing

achievement (including cognitive, linguistic, and environmental variables), and the critical role

language plays in accessing scientific content.

Theoretical and empirical studies were cited to reinforce the strong relationship between language

proficiency and science achievement, noting that students with stronger language skills

44
consistently perform better. The chapter further analyzed the impact of individual language skills,

detailing how each skill contributes to science comprehension and performance.

Challenges related to student understanding, teacher instruction, and curriculum alignment were

discussed, identifying significant gaps in language support within science education. To address

these, the literature highlighted effective strategies such as language support programs, integrated

teaching methods like CLIL, and language-sensitive education policies.

In conclusion, the literature affirmed that language proficiency is a major determinant of success

in Basic Science, and overcoming language-related obstacles is essential for improving academic

outcomes among students in Lagos State.

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