Research methods for
7 AS and A Level
ASSESSMENT CHECK 24:
7.1–7.2 Research methods – Research methods
& Scientific processes (page 275)
1 The independent variable is whether participants were interviewed using the
standard police interview or the cognitive interview technique.
The dependent variable is the amount of accurate recall each participant produced.
2 (a) One confounding variable might be how much sleep participants had had the
previous night, as this could affect their concentration levels when watching
the fake assault.
(b) This confounding variable could be controlled by ensuring all participants had
the same amount of sleep the night before, so that their concentration levels
would be the same.
3 (i) Investigator effects might influence the findings by the physical
characteristics of a researcher, such as their age or ethnic background. This
could affect accuracy of recall given by participants.
(ii) Demand characteristics might affect the findings by participants trying to
work out what answers they think the researcher requires and then giving
these answers, which might not be their true recall of the fake assault.
4 That there will be a significant difference between the amount of accurate recall
produced by participants interviewed using the standard police interview and the
cognitive interview technique after witnessing a fake assault.
5 In a laboratory study a researcher manipulates an independent variable between the
conditions of the experiment. In a natural experiment there is no manipulation of an
independent variable, instead an independent variable is used that varies naturally.
6 The sample was self-selected, as participants volunteered themselves for the study.
One limitation of using a self-selected sample is that only a certain type of person
may respond to the advert, making the results unrepresentative and thus not
generalisable.
7 (i) The research shows a positive correlation.
(ii) One strength is that a correlational study would be ethical, as it would not be
possible to deliberately subject participants to stress to see the effect on
their health, as would be necessary with an experiment.
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Research methods for
7 AS and A Level
One weakness of correlation would be that causality could not be
established, as the study is not performed under controlled conditions in
order that the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable
could be seen.
(iii) A scattergram would be used to display the correlational data.
(iv) That there will be a relationship between the amount of stress experienced
and the number of days taken off sick over a 6-month period.
(v) A systematic sample would be gained by selecting every nth person from a
population.
(vi) A strength of a systematic sample is that it is unbiased in selection and should
thus produce a fairly representative sample.
A limitation of a systematic sample is that of periodic traits, which occur if the
sampling technique coincides with the frequency of the trait. For example, if
the sampling frequency was selecting people from every fifth property in a
street and every fifth property happened to be student flats, then a non-
representative sample of just students would be gained.
(vii) One advantage of giving the stress scale as a questionnaire, as opposed to an
interview, would be a lack of investigator effects, as a questionnaire could be
completed without a researcher being present to possibly influence a
participant’s responses.
One weakness would be that as no researcher is present, follow-up questions
could not be asked to pursue interesting answers further.
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Research methods for
7 AS and A Level
ASSESSMENT CHECK 25:
7.2 Research methods – Scientific processes (page 291)
1 (i) One behavioural category might be the degree to which the girl sought
contact with her carer when reunited with him/her.
Another behavioural category might be the degree of distress the girl showed
at separation.
(ii) The girl’s behaviour could be recorded on a coding sheet, where, rather than
writing descriptions of the observed behaviour, the observers record the
behaviour using previously agreed scales.
(iii) A pilot study might be carried out to check for errors in the procedure, so
that if any were identified they could be changed before the main study took
place.
(iv) Inter-rater reliability would need to be established to ensure all observers
were making consistent observations. This would mean that the researchers
agreed with each other as to which categories the behaviour being observed
fitted into.
(v) Inter-rater reliability could be established by setting up clearly defined,
separate behavioural categories, with no overlaps between categories,
before the study commenced.
2 (i) The IV was whether participants were moderately anxious or had low
anxiety.
The DV was how many items participants recalled.
(ii) The experimental design was independent groups design.
(iii) A strength of the independent groups design is that order effects do not
occur, as they would in a repeated measures design, where participants
encounter a learning or fatigue effect by performing the procedure more
than once.
A weakness of the independent groups design is that only one piece of data is
generated by each participant, so twice as many participants are needed as
with a repeated measures design.
(iv) One strength of the stratified sampling method is that it is unbiased, as
random sampling is performed on the sub-groups of a population.
One weakness is it is time-consuming, as a population has to be divided into
strata and then random sampling performed on each strata.
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Research methods for
7 AS and A Level
(v) Informed consent would have to be considered, where participants are given
sufficient details about the aims and procedures of the study that they can
make a considered decision as to whether to take part.
The right to withdraw would also have to be considered, where participants
are informed that they are under no obligation to complete the study and
that they can leave at any time they wish.
(vi) Psychological research can benefit the economy if it improves the
performance of people within the workplace. For example, ensuring people
in the workplace were moderately aroused when learning information would
make their level of recall more efficient and thus benefit the economy by
making them more efficient workers.
(vii) The validity of the data could be assessed through face validity, the degree to
which the data looks like what it claims to measure.
3 Falsification involves scientific statements being capable of being proven wrong. This
involves a hypothesis or theory being empirically testable through the making of
unbiased observations under controlled conditions. The data produced should be
capable of being subjected to statistical analysis to see whether or not the
hypothesis or theory is refuted (falsified).
4 Research has to undergo peer review to ensure that it is scrutinised by experts to
such an extent that it can be judged to be scientifically acceptable. This ensures that
flawed research does not become accepted as fact.
5 Peer review might not always be unbiased; the social relationships that develop
between individuals in the narrow social world that researchers exist in may affect
the reviewers’ impartiality and objectivity. Reviewers may not accept a piece of
research if it argues against their own findings in the field, or they may even reject
research so they can copy the findings and publish them as their own. There is also
the accusation that peer review is performed by elite groups of scientists who may
resist the publication of revolutionary ideas, even if they appear to be valid.
6 The major features of science include the scientific process and the concepts of
replicability, objectivity and falsification.
The scientific process is a means of acquiring knowledge based on observable,
measurable evidence. This involves the formation and testing of hypotheses
(testable predictions) based on observations that have been made without bias.
Hypotheses must be tested under controlled conditions in order that the hypotheses
and the theories they represent can be validated.
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Research methods for
7 AS and A Level
Replicability involves checking the validity of results by repeating research under
exactly the same conditions as before. Research must also be written up in a
conventional, full manner in order for replication to be possible.
Objectivity is an important part of empiricism, where observations are made through
unbiased sensory experience and not from the biased viewpoints of researchers.
Falsifiability is part of the verification process, and means that scientific hypotheses
and theories must be capable of being empirically tested in order to see if they are
false or not. Replication is the accepted means of achieving this. For example,
Freud’s psychodynamic theory can be criticised for not being falsifiable, as it cannot
be tested empirically and therefore does not have scientific validity.
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Research methods for
7 AS and A Level
ASSESSMENT CHECK 26:
7.3–7.4 Research methods – Data handling and analysis
& Inferential testing (page 312)
1 Table showing concentration test scores (out of 10.0) for males and females.
Males Females
Total score 44.0 36.9
Number of participants 7 6
Mean score 6.334 6.15
Range 4.1 4.1
Total number of participants = 13
2 A bar chart would be appropriate, as the data are non-continuous and could show a
comparison of mean male and female scores.
3 A Mann-Whitney statistical test would be appropriate.
4 The test would be appropriate as it is a test of difference, an independent groups
design has been used and the data is of at least ordinal level.
5 One strength of the standard deviation is that it is a more sensitive measure of
dispersion than the range, as all the scores in a set of data are used in its calculation.
A weakness is that it is less meaningful if data are not normally distributed, that is to
say if the scores in a set of data are not arranged in a symmetrical fashion either side
of the mean.
6 (i) A Type I error occurs when a difference or relationship in a set of data is
accepted as a real difference/relationships (seen as beyond the boundaries of
chance), when it is not.
(ii) A Type II error occurs when a difference or relationship in a set of data is
rejected (seen as not beyond the boundaries of chance), but in fact actually
does exist.
7 A 5 per cent significance level is the accepted level of significance in psychological
research, as it strikes a balance between making a Type I and a Type II error.
8 Data that are normally distributed should have a similar mode, median and mean.
The data should form a bell-shaped (Gaussian) curve when plotted on a histogram.
The majority of scores should be centred on and around the mean. There should be
a symmetrical distribution of scores either side of the mean.
9 Primary data is data collected specifically towards a research aim, which has not
been published before, while secondary data is data originally collected towards
another research aim, which has been published before.
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