IRBM DFCC BRIDGE MANUAL REMARKS

CONSTRUCTION OF FOUNDATIONS FOR BRIDGES

401. Setting the layout of Bridges
1. General
a) It is necessary to accurately lay out the centre line of a bridge and
the locations of its piers and abutments and to establish a system by
which they can be checked with ease during the progress of the work.
b) Position of the principal reference lines and level pegs should be
so selected and laid that they are easily accessible for check during the
execution of the work.
c) The principal reference lines to be established are the
longitudinal centre line and the transverse centre lines of abutments and
piers. If the bridge is on a curve, the tangent points of the curve and the
directions of the tangents at either end should also be established by
pegs.

2. Setting out bridges without a base line:

Where deep excavations are not involved and where there is no
water flow in the river during the working season, setting out primarily
involves fixing the alignment correctly using a theodolite. The distance
between the abutment at either end and the nearest pier and the pier -
to-pier distance can be set out by directly measuring and marking the
centres using a good steel tape (See Annexure 4I1).
The centre points of each structure (pier or abutment) should be
punch marked on a flat or angle iron piece fixed flush with the top of a
concrete block at the correct location.
3. Setting out bridges with the help of a base line:
 a) Where deep excavation, pile driving or well sinking is involved,
and where there is standing water, base lines are set out at right angle to
the centre line of the bridge, one on either end on the high banks, or on
one side of the bridge or anywhere between the abutments where level
ground is available.

b) The actual position of the piers abutments is determined by the

intersection of three sight lines, one along the alignment sighted from
stations located on either end, a second from a station on the base line
on the downstream side and a third from a point on the base line on the
upstream side. Theoretically all these three lines should intersect at one
point. Normally a triangle of error gets formed and the correct centre is
fixed by judgment within this triangle. (Refer Annexure 4I2) .
4. Important points to be observed while setting out base lines:
a) Linear measurement should be carried out with invar tape or
electronic distance measuring equipment.
b) Concrete pillars with steel plates fixed over them should be
located at tape lengths for accurate measurements.
c) Spring balances should be used for giving specified tension to the
tape.
d) Tape readings should be corrected for tension, temperature and
slope.
402. Pipe and box Culverts with open foundation
Pipe and box culverts can be constructed after removing the topsoil
in bed to the required depth and replacing it with a layer of lean concrete
after the bed is levelled and well consolidated by ramming or rolling.
Reference may be made to Annexure 4I3 for a typical arrangement.
Pipe and box culverts should not normally be provided where the bed is
likely to be scoured.
403. Other Bridges with open foundation
1. Open foundations must rest on a stratum with adequate bearing
capacity. In order to reduce the bearing pressure, the base can be
sufficiently widened by providing footings. The footings will rest on a
lean concrete bed of adequate thickness.
2. The foundation should be taken to a depth not less than 1.75
metres below the lowest anticipated scoured bed level in ordinary soil. In
rocky soil, it will be adequate if it is properly keyed into the rock for a
minimum of 0.3 metre in case of hard rock and 1.5 metres in case of soft
rock. Sloping rock may be suitably benched. Fissures and weathered rocks
should be avoided. A typical arrangement is shown in Annexure 4/4
3. In soft soils, rafts may be provided as foundation. Such rafts
should be protected by means of suitable aprons and cut off walls or
launching aprons, both on the upstream and downstream sides to
prevent undermining of the foundations.
4. Excavation for open foundations with shoring:
Excavation should be done in such a way that the surrounding soil
can stand by itself by suitable sloping the sides. When excavations have
to be deep or when the side slopes are not stable, suitable shoring may
be provided from top, using timber planks, walling pieces and struts.
Typical arrangements of shoring are shown in Annexure 4/5
5. In deep foundations and large size excavations, where the seepage is
heavy, suitable pumps may be used for dewatering. A small sump on the
side or corners should be provided for collection of the water to be pumped.
404. Excavation using coffer dam
1. Shallow foundations:
Where excavation is required to be done under flowing or standing
water, coffer dams of steel sheet pile, RCC or timber may be constructed.
Driving is done from a floating platform. Annexure 4I6 shows a typical
arrangement with steel sheet piling.
2. Deep foundations:
When the depth of water is more than 10 metres, coffer dams with
single wall sheet pile will not be adequate. In such cases double wall
sheet pile coffer dams as shown in Annexure 4I7 may be provided. The
two rows of sheet piles are connected by tie rods and the space in
between is filled with rock or soil. Suitable beams are provided on the
inside.
PILE FOUNDATIONS
405. Choice of pile materials
RCC piles both driven and bored may be used. Driven piles may be
either precast or cast in-situ. Timber piles may, however, be used for
temporary restoration of traffic. They should, be replaced with permanent
structures. A typical arrangement of a temporary wooden pile bridge is
shown in Annexure 4/8.
406. Soil Exploration for design and construction of piles
For the satisfactory design and construction of piles, detailed soil
exploration to a depth generally not less than 10 metres below the
anticipated level of pile tip (unless bed rock or firm strata has been
encountered earlier) should be carried out and the following particulars
are collected.
a) Ground water table and its tidal and seasonal fluctuations.
b) Soil profile and bore hole log.
c) In-situ bulk and dry density.
d) Index properties of soil;
 e) Shear properties of soil. If required Standard Penetration Test
(SPT) may be done;
f) Consolidation properties, in case of clays;
g) Chemical analysis of soil and ground water to identify sulphate
and chloride content or any other deleterious chemical content.
Additional data such as high flood level, maximum scour depth,
normal water level during working season, etc. should also be collected.
407. Classification of pile foundations
Piles may be classified as under:
1. Based on the manner of transfer of load.
a) Friction piles:
These piles transfer the load primarily by skin friction developed
along their surface. They are used in soils not subjected to scour.
b) Bearing piles :
These piles transfer the load primarily by bearing resistance
developed at the pile tip or base, without taking into account the frictional
resistance. They are generally used in hard stratum.
c) Bearing-cum-friction piles:
These piles transfer the load both by bearing and friction
2. Based on construction methods:
a) Driven Pre-cast piles;
b) Driven cast in-situ piles.
c) Bored cast-in-situ piles.
3. Large diameter bored piles of more than one metre diameter are
normally used for Railway bridge construction.
408. Selection of type of piles
The following factors are to be considered while selecting the type
of piles:
1. Availability of space and head room:
Driven piles require large area and headroom since they need
larger and heavier driving rigs. Bored piles, however, require
comparatively smaller space.
2. Proximity to the structure:
Driving causes vibration of the ground which may damage nearby
structures. Hence bored piles are preferred in these cases.
3. Reliability:
Driven precast piles ensure good quality as they are cast under
controlled condition. In cast in-situ piles, segregation of concrete is
possible in waterlogged areas.
4. Limitation of length:
Cast-in-situ piles can be formed to any desired length. The length of
driven piles normally does not exceed 25 to 30 m depending on the
capacity of the driving equipment.
409. Spacing of piles
1. The spacing of piles is determined based on the type of soil and
empirical approach keeping in view the following aspects:
a) Practical aspects of installing the piles.
b) The nature of the load transfer to the soil and possible reduction in
the bearing capacity of a group of piles thereby
2. Where piles are found on a very hard stratum and derive their
capacity mainly from end bearing, the spacing will be governed by the
competency of the end bearing stratum. The minimum spacing in such
cases shall be 2.5 times the diameter of the pile shaft.
3. Piles deriving their bearing capacity mainly from friction shall be
sufficiently apart to ensure that the zones of soil from which the piles
derive support do not overlap to such an extent that their bearing values
are reduced. Generally, the spacing in such cases shall not be less than
3 times the diameter of the pile shaft.
4. In the case of loose sand or filling, closer spacing than in dense
sand may be possible since displacement during filling may be absorbed
by vertical and horizontal compaction of the strata. Minimum spacing in
such strata may be twice the diameter of the pile shaft. This is
applicable for driven piles only.
5. Normally centre to centre spacing should not be more than 4 d,
where d is the diameter of pile shaft. In the case of piles of non-
circular cross section, diameter of the circumscribing circle shall be
adopted.
410. Load carrying capacity of pile/group of piles.
1. Load carrying capacity of a single pile:
a) The ultimate bearing capacity of a pile may be assessed by
means of a dynamic pile formula, using the data obtained during driving
of the piles or by a static formula on the basis of soil test results or by a
load test. Reference may be made to IS : 2911-1979 Part - I, section
-I (revised) for the details of dynamic and static formulae.
b) For non-cohesive soils, Hiley's formula is more reliable than other
formulae. (Appendix-B of IS 2911 Part -I, section -I ). Hiley's formula is
not reliable in cohesive soils.
c) Load test is most desirable. The load test on pile should be
carried out four weeks after casting the pile
d) Resistance due to skin friction will be available only below the
 scour line and this must be taken into account in all the three methods.
2. Factor of safety for Pile Foundations:
a) The factor of safety shall be judiciously chosen after considering
the following:
i) Reliability of the ultimate bearing capacity of pile;
ii) Type of superstructure and type of loading;
iii) Allowable total differential settlement of the structure;
iv) Experience of similar structures near the site.

b) The minimum factor of safety with static or dynamic formula

shall be 2.5. The value to be selected for the factor of safety shall,
however, take into account, the allowable total settlement and
differential settlement of the structure as a whole. The ultimate load
capacity should be obtained, whenever practicable, from a load test
(initial) (as per IS: 291 I (Part 4)-1985). Factor of safety for
assessing
safe load on piles from load test data should be increased in
unfavourable conditions
where :
(i) settlement is to be limited, or unequal settlement
avoided as in the case of accurately aligned
machinery or a superstructure with
(ii) large
fragile impact or vibrating loads are
finishing.
expected
(iii) the properties of the soil may be expected to
deteriorate
with(iv)
time,
the and
live load on a structure carried by friction piles is a
considerable portion of the total load and approximates to the dead
load in its (ACS 15(ACSdtd.1505.08.2008)
dtd.
duration. 05.08.2008)
3. Bearing capacity of a pile group:
The bearing capacity of a pile group may be either of the
 following:
i) Equal to the bearing capacity of individual piles multiplied by the
number of piles in the group, or
ii) It may be less than the above.
The former holds true in the case of friction piles, cast or driven
into progressively stiffer materials or in end bearing piles. In friction
piles installed in soft and clayey soils, it is normally smaller. For
driven piles in loose sandy soils the group value may be higher due to
the effect of compaction. In such a case, a load test should be made
on a pile from the group after all the piles in the group have been
installed.
NOTE; Reference should be made to IS: 2911 (1979) Code of
Practice for Design and Construction of Pile Foundation (Revised) for
further details while designing the piles and pile groups.
411. Construction of pile foundation
1. Driven precast piles:
Piles can be driven either with a drop hammer or by the use of a
single acting double acting hammer. A typical rig which can be used
for driving precast piles as well as the casing for cast in-situ piles is
shown in Annexure 4/9. When the pile driving has to be done in water
the equipment can be mounted on pontoons.
2. Driven cast-in-situ piles:
A steel casing pipe with a shoe at the bottom is driven first to the
required depth. The reinforcement cage of the pile is then lowered
inside the casing and the pile concreted. If possible, the concrete is
tamped and compacted as it is poured, or a high slump concrete is
poured through a tremie. As the concreting of the pile proceeds
upwards, the casing is withdrawn keeping a suitable over lapping
length.
3. Bored cast-in-situ piles:
A guide casing of 3 to 4 m length is provided on top of the bore
hole and is driven with the help of a bailer. Further boring below this
casing is carried out by chiselling and the side walls are kept stable by
circulating bentonite slurry inside the bore hole. The Bentonite clay
used in the operation should conform to provisions made in IS : 2911
Part -1, section -2. After reaching the founding level, the chisel is
removed, the bore hole flushed and the reinforcement cage lowered
into the hole and held in position by tack welding it to the support bars
at the top of the casing.
After this the concreting is carried out by using a "tremie”. The
concreting is continued till a good quality concrete is seen at the top of
the bore hole. The concrete used is a high slump mix (not leaner than
M 20 grade). Cast-in-situ piles in which the steel shell is left in the
ground ensures the quality of concrete and offers corrosion
protection in soils containing chlorides and sulphates.
412. Permissible tolerance while driving piles
1. Control of alignment:
Piles should be installed as accurately as possible as per the
designs and drawings either vertically or to the specified batter. As a
guide, for vertical piles a deviation of 1.5 percent and for raker pile a
deviation of 4 percent should not normally be exceeded.
2. Piles should not deviate more than 75mm or DI10 in case of
bored cast-in-Situ piles having diameter more than 600mm
whichever is more, from their designed position at the working level of
the piling rig. In the case of a single pile in a column, positional
tolerance should not be more than 50 mm (100mm in case of piles
having diameter more then 600mm). Greater tolerance may be
prescribed for piles driven over water and for raker piles. For piles to be
cut-off at a substantial depth, the design should provide for the worst
combination of the above tolerances in position and inclination. In case
of piles deviating beyond these limits and to such extent that the
resulting eccentricity cannot be taken care of by a redesign of the pile
cap or pile ties, the piles should be replaced or supplemented by
one or more additional piles.
NOTE: In the case of raker piles upto a rake of 1 in 6, there
may be no reduction in the capacity of the pile unless otherwise
stated.
3. Any deviation from the designed location, alignment or load
capacity of any pile shall be noted and adequate measures taken well
before the concreting of the pile cap and plinth beam.
413. Sequence of piling
1 In a pile group the sequence of installation of piles shall
normally be from the centre to the periphery of the group or from one
side to the other.
2 Consideration should be given to the possibility of doing
harm to a pile recently formed by driving the tube nearby before the
concrete has sufficiently set. The danger of doing harm is greater in
compact soils than in loose soils.
3 Driving piles in loose sand tends to compact the sand which, in
turn, increases the skin friction. Therefore, the order of installing of such
a pile in a group should avoid creating a compacted block of ground
into which further piles cannot be driven.
4 In case where stiff clay or compact sand layers have to be
penetrated, similar precautions need be taken. This may be
overcome by driving the piles from the centre to outward or by
beginning at a selected edge and working across the group. However,
in case of very soft soils, the driving may have to proceed from outside
to inside so that the soil is restrained from flowing out during the
operations.
414. Defective piles
1 In case defective piles are formed, they shall be removed or left
in place whichever is convenient without affecting the performance of
the adjacent piles or the group as a whole. Additional piles shall be
provided to replace them as necessary.
2 If there is a major variation between the depths at which
adjacent piles in a group meet refusal, a boring shall be made
nearby to ascertain the cause of this difference. If the boring shows that
the soil contains pockets of highly compressive material below the level
of the shorter pile, it may be necessary to take all the piles to a level
below the bottom of the zone which shows such pockets.
415. Tremie Concreting
The following precautions are to be taken while doing the work:
1 The concrete should be coherent, rich in cement (not less
3
than 370 kg/m3) and of slump between 150 and 180 mm.
2 When concreting is carried out under water, a temporary
casing should be installed to the full depth of the bore hole or 2m into
non collapsible stratum so that fragments of ground cannot drop from
sides of the hole into concrete as it is placed. The temporary casing
may not be required except near the top when concreting under
drilling mud (Bentonite slurry.)
3 The hopper and the tremie should be a closed system
embedded in the placed concrete, through which water cannot pass.
 4 The tremie should be large enough with due regard to size of the
aggregates. For 20 mm sized aggregate the tremie pipe should be of
diameter not less than 200 mm. Aggregates more than 20 mm in size
shall not be used.
5 The first charge of concrete should be placed with a sliding
plug pushed down the tube ahead of it or with a steel plate of
adequate charge to prevent mixing of concrete and water. However,
plug should not be left in the concrete as a lump.
6 The tremie pipe should always penetrate well into the concrete
with an adequate margin of safety against accidental withdrawal of the
pipe surging to discharge the concrete.
7 The pile should be concreted wholly by tremie, and the method
of deposition should not be changed part way up the pile, to prevent
laitance from being entrapped within the pile.
8. All tremie tubes should be scrupulously cleaned after use.
9. Normally concreting of the piles should be uninterrupted. In an
exceptional case of interruption of concreting, but which can be
resumed within 1 or 2 hours, the tremie shall not be taken out of the
concrete. Instead, it shall be raised and lowered slowly, from time to
time to prevent the concrete around the tremie from setting.
Concreting should be resumed by introducing a little richer concrete with
a slump of about 200 mm for easy displacement of the partly set
concrete. If the concreting cannot be resumed before final setting of
concrete already placed the pile so cast may be rejected or accepted
with modifications.
10. In case of withdrawal of tremie out of the concrete either
accidentally or to remove a choke in the tremie, the tremie may be
reintroduced in the following manner to prevent impregnation of
laitance or scum lying on top of the concrete deposited in the bore.
 The tremie shall be gently lowered on to the old concrete with
very little penetration initially. A vermuculite plug should be
introduced in the tremie. Fresh concrete of slump between 150 mm and
175 mm should be filled in the tremie which will push the plug forward
and will emerge out of the tremie displacing the laitance/scum. The
tremie will be pushed further in steps making fresh concrete sweep
away the laitance/scum in its way. When tremie is buried by about 60
to 100 cm, concreting may be resumed.
11. In case of concreting through tremie or such tubes which are
subsequently withdrawn, the concrete shall be placed in sufficient
quantity to ensure that during withdrawal of the tube a sufficient
head of concrete is maintained to prevent the in-flow of soil and water or
bentonite slurry (Refer Annexure 4/10).
12. The top of the concrete in a pile shall be brought above the
cut-off level to permit removal of all laitance and weak concrete before
capping and to ensure good concrete at the cut off level for proper
embedment into the pile cap.
416. Acceptance of pile
For acceptance of piles, vertical and lateral load, testing of
piles as required will be carried out as per procedure laid down in IS
: 2911 (Pt-IV) " Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Pile
Foundation -Load test on piles."

417. Types of Well

1. The types commonly used are:
(i) Circular
(ii) Double -D
For bridges with single line circular wells are
adequate. Where the pier length is larger as in the
 case of double line bridges, double- D wells may be
used.
2. The circular well is simple to construct, easy to sink and
has uniform strength in all directions. It can be better
controlled against tilt and tilt correction is also easier.
The only disadvantage is the limitation in size which
restricts its use to bridges with smaller piers
3. The shape of Double-D well facilitates easy casting and
sinking due to presence of two dredge holes. The overall
length of the well generally is restricted to twice the width
418. Components of wells
1. Annexure 4/11 shows the cross section of typical well
foundation with its components.
2. Well curb including cutting edge:

The bottom portion of the well is tapered and is called the

well curb. It should be strong enough to transmit the
design loads to the bottom plug. The inclination of the
inner face of the curb should preferably be not more
than 30 degrees except in sandy strata, where it may go
up to 45 degree. Reinforced well curb with a minimum
reinforcement of 72kg/m3excluding bond rods are suitable
for depth up to 25 meters. For depth more than 25 meter,
all steel well curbs are preferable. In case blasting is
anticipated, the inner face of curb should be protected by
steel plates or any other means to sufficient height.

The Cutting edge, which is an integral part of the well

curb, is usually made of rails or mild steel plates and
angles and is fabricated in 3 or 4 parts. The cutting edge
should be properly anchored to the well curb. In the case
 of double -D wells the bottom of the cutting edge of the
intermediate walls may be kept 300mm above the outer
cutting edge. To prevent rocking.

A typical RCC well curb including cutting edge is shown in

Annexure 4/12.
3. Well Steining:
(a) General
Well steining is built of mass concrete. Bond rods
distributed uniformly on both faces of the steining shall
be provided at a rate not less than 9 Kg/m3 to bond the
units of the steining during the process of construction.
They shall be tied up by providing adequate horizontal
hoop reinforcement which shall not be less than 9
kg/m3. The cover for the rods shall not be less than 75
mm.

(b)Thickness of steining of cement concrete wells:

The well steining should be sufficient thickness ( Not
less than 1000mm) so that
(i) Sinking is possible without kentledge.
(ii) The steining is strong enough to resist damage
during sinking.
(iii) Till correction is possible without damage to the
well.
(iv) The steining is strong enough to resist earth
pressure in condition s like sand b;low or sudden
drop of well during sinking, and
(v) Stress developed during sinking and in service
condition a are within permissible limit.
4. Bottom Plug:
The dredge hole should be filled up with M-15 grade
 cement concrete under water. The bottom plug should fill
up the entire portion of the cone and upto 300 mm above
the top of curb. The bottom plug concreting should be
done in one continuous operation.
5. Top Plug:
A 300 mm or appropriate (ACS 15 dtd. 05.08.2008)
thick plug of cement concrete M-10 grade shall be
provided over the hearting which shall normally be done
with sand.
6. Well cap:
The bottom of the well cap shall, as far as possible, be located 300
mm above low water level. All the longitudinal bars from the well steining
shall be anchored into the well cap. The well cap shall be designed as
a slab resting on the well steining.
419. Pitching of the cutting edge and well curb
The curb should be generally pitched at about 15 cm to 30 cm
above the low water level. The pitching level may be kept higher if the
water level in the river is subjected to greater fluctuations like in tidal
areas. In case the site is dry, excavation should be carried out upto the
level at which the well curb is proposed to be pitched and the centre of
the well curb carefully marked. The well curb should then be assembled
on wooden blocks or sand bags placed at intervals of about 1.5 metre.
In case the well has to be sunk in water, an island is formed, and
the top of the island is levelled and compacted lightly and marking for
setting the cutting edge is done on the level surface.
The concrete should be of mix not leaner than M-20 grade. After
concreting the well curb the outer shuttering may be taken off after 24 to
48 hours depending on the temperature. The inside conical shuttering can
be taken off after 72 hours. The wooden block supports can be taken
out alternatively one by one, supporting the well curb on sandb a g s
using a jack, for the purpose. Vertical gauges on four sides of the well
from the centre of the cutting edge should be provided to monitor the
verticality of the well during sinking. RCC well curb should be allowed to
set for at least one week before sinking is started. A well is most
unstable in the beginning when it has no grip in the sand or when the grip
is very small. The chances of tilting increases considerably if the well is
made top heavy by raising the masonry of the steining too high in the first
instance. The best course is to sink the well curb alone after allowing it
setting time without raising the steining above it.
420. Concreting of steining
The well steining should be built up in stages initially 1.20 to 1.50
metres at a time, as it is gradually sunk through the soil, keeping
sufficient free board above the water level. Once well has acquired a
grip of about 6 metres, the steining can be raised 3 metres at a time to
obtain a better rate of progress. Inner shuttering and bracing should not
be removed within 24 hours of casting.
421. Sinking of wells in water
1. The sinking of well is done by removing the soil with grabs or
chiselling and drawing out the soil. Sinking of steining should not be
done within 48 hours of casting.
2. In stagnant water and in water with velocity upto about 2.0 m/s
and of depth upto about 5 metres, construction of island may be
resorted to. In greater depths, the use of steel caissons would become
unavoidable.
3. Construction of island:
a) The island should provide sufficient working space of about 2 to 3
metres all-round the well. A minimum free board of 0.6 metre should
always be provided.
 b) For depths of water up to 1 metre, an island may be constructed
by laying a few rings of sand bags enclosing the area of the island and
filling with sand. Boulders should not be used in the construction of
island as they may find a way inside the island and obstruct the sinking of
the well. For greater depths, two rows of piles 1.5 metre apart at a
spacing of 1 metre enclosing the area of the island may be provided. Up
to 1.5 metre depth, bamboo piles may be used and timber ballies may
be used up to 3 metre depth. The piles are lashed together with strap,
wire ropes or coir ropes. Bamboo matting is then fixed along the inside
faces of the piles and the space between the mattings is filled with
puddle or sandbags. Beyond 13 metre depth, steel sheet piles should
be used. The piles should have a grip of at least 3 metres. Sandbags
should be dumped outside the island as a protection against scour. In
cases, where velocity is high, wire netting (crates) filled with boulders
may be used. (Refer Annexure 4/13).
422. Sinking of wells using caissons
1. In deeper channels and swift rivers, caissons built of steel plates
suitably strengthened by angle iron stiffeners and further strutted and tied
together by MS angles may be used. Caissons are lowered through water
and pitched in position before commencing the sinking.
2. Assembling and launching of caissons:
Caissons can be assembled at site itself and launched straight
away using barges or can be assembled when the riverbed is dry and
launched when water level in the river rises.
In the first method, a temporary platform is constructed over two
barges suitably anchored and a gantry is erected over the platform. The
caisson is assembled on the temporary platform. After testing for leakages,
the caisson is lifted from the platform and lowered in position after
removing the temporary platform (Annexure 4/14)
In the second method, the caissons are assembled, tested and
kept ready duly filled with water on the river bed when it is dry. When the
water level rises, the water in the caisson is pumped out and they are
toed into position. The draught can be reduced by covering the dredge
holes with steel plates and pumping compressed air into them.
As an alternative method, caissons can be assembled on the river
bank and brought into the water using the slip ways after which they can
be toed into position for launching and grounding. This method of
assembling the caissons in dry docks and launching them is very
expensive and resorted to only under special circumstances.
3. Grounding of caissons:
While lowering, the caisson should be held firmly in position
between the barges with greased wooden packings as shown in
Annexure 4/15.
The barges should themselves be firmly anchored to the
riverb e d . The caisson should be lowered slightly at first by pumping in
water or releasing the compressed air from the dredge holes. Later the
rate of lowering can be increased by adding weight either by concrete or
water. It should be ensured that a minimum free board of 0.6 metre
is maintained throughout the grounding operations. Once the caisson
has touched the bed, sandbags should be deposited around to contain the
scour. The caisson is then set in its correct position. Further weight is
added by pouring concrete in the caisson and dredging operations are
commenced.
423. Process of open sinking of wells

1. Sinking of smaller wells may be done with the help of timber

shear leg, derrick or timber scotch. For shallow depths, grabbing and
removal of the earth can be done manually. For greater depths and
where the sub soil water level is high, suitable dredger may be used. The
grab cannot be operated in the blind area below the curb. Hence, these
are suitable for the wells with thinner steining. Steam or diesel winches
of suitable capacity can be used for operating the grabs or dredgers.
For faster sinking of wells of 6 metre dia and above, suitable cranes may
be used.

2. Well Sinking through clay and hard strata:

a) In stiff clay strata or in strata with compact sand, shingle and

boulders, the use of rail chisel may be required. Use of chisels can be
avoided if hammer grabs are used.

A sketch of rail chisel commonly in use on Indian Railways is

shown in Annexure 4/16.

b) For sinking through stiff clay and other hard strata buoyancy
effect of the soil may be reduced by dewatering the well to increase its
effective weight.

c) If due to heavy skin friction, the well is held in a floating condition,

air or water jets may be used on the outer periphery of the well for
reducing the friction. For this purpose pipes of 4 to 5 cm. dia. fitted with
nozzles can be incorporated in the well close to the outside periphery,
particularly in the curb portion and also for some height of the steining
above.

d) When any of the above methods is not effective, a few sticks of

gelignite can be detonated under the water below the cutting edge. This
results in shaking of the well and reducing the skin friction, which helps in
its further sinking. Charging should be started with small quantities in
each dredge hole at a time and gradually increased. When there is more
than one dredge hole, such charging and detonation should be done in
all the holes simultaneously.
3. Precautions to be taken during well sinking:
a) Blowing of Sand:
Great caution is necessary when dewatering of well is done at
shallow depths or when the well has not gone into the soil by at least 1
metre. The difference in the hydraulic pressure inside and outside the
well may create a passage for rush of sand from outside the well resulting
In “blowing of the sand”. Sand blowing can endanger the safety of men
working inside the well and can also cause sudden tilting of the well.
Seepage of water should be carefully watched during sinking and should
be checked by putting sand bags over the area where such seepage is
noticed. In severe cases of sand blowing, large quantity of the sand is
sucked into the well and a funnel shaped depression is formed outside
the well as shown in Annexure 4/17. Empty gunny bags and branches of
the tree with green leaves may be thrown into the funnel and dredging
continued till the sand blow gets arrested. The well can then be dewatered
completely, and excavation continued.
b) Quicksand condition: -
Quicksand conditions may occur when fine sand or silt underlie an
impervious layer of clay with a considerable hydraulic pressure below the
clay layer. As soon as the layer of clay is pierced through, a steep
hydraulic gradient is established across a fine sand or silt under the clay
and it either starts rushing upwards or is in a state of incipient motion. It
has no shear strength in this state and allows the well to sink into it
without offering any resistance. In most cases, the sand rises to a
considerable height above the cutting edge and remains there in spite of
continuous dredging. The problem can be faced to a certain extent if the
steining of the well is raised to a considerable height when the cutting
edge is well within the clay layer. The level of water inside the well should
also be raised by pumping in water.
Dewatering should not be tried under any circumstance, and no
one should be allowed inside the well when quicks a n d condition
develops. By keeping the water level inside the well higher, a hydraulic
gradient is established in the reverse direction and the quicksand
condition is not allowed to develop. Even if it does develop, there is
considerable margin of safety and the well does not sink below the bed
level.
(c) While sinking wells in deep water, divers with their equipment
should be present for emergencies.
424. Tilt and shift of the well
1. Limits of tilt and shift:
a) As far as possible wells shall be sunk without any tilt and shift. A
tilt of up to 1 in 100 (1%) and a shift of D/40 subject to a maximum of
150 mm can be permitted.
b) Excessive tilt and shift, which cannot be corrected, should be
taken into account for rechecking the design of the well and the resulting
foundation pressure.
c) The gauges marked at quarter points on the outer periphery of the
steining starting from the bottom of the cutting edge mentioned earlier
are used for checking the tilts. Water level readings on all the four
gauges are observed frequently to get an idea of the direction and extent
of tilt. Where the well is not sunk through water, plumb bobs are used on
all four sides to judge the verticality of the well. It should be noted that
plumb bobs are used only for checking for tilt during sinking and should
never be used while building up the steining.
2. Tilt correction:
Depending on the site conditions, any one of the following methods may
be adopted either separately or in combination with others for the
rectification of tilt which may occur due to the well encountering very soft
material on one side and hard material on the other side or when there is a
log of wood or a big boulder under the cutting edge on one side of the well.
a) Eccentric dredging :
The dredging is confined to the higher side and is done very close
to the inside face of the steining and even a little under the steining.
b) Eccentric loading :
The side which is higher is loaded either by placing kentledges on
the steining or by placing the load on a cantilevered platform
(Annexure 4/18). Eccentric dredging should also be carried out to aid the
tilt correction.
c) Applying pull to the well :
Light pull can be applied to a well by taking a wire rope round the
well and anchoring the tackle to a dead man anchorage or a large tree if
available in the vicinity. The tackle is worked by a winch and tension is
maintained as sinking progresses (Annexure 4/18).
For applying heavy pull, wire ropes are taken round and fixed to a
large dead man anchorage. Rails or other kentledges are then placed on
the wire ropes to develop high tension and the tilt gets rectified as the
well sinks (Annexure 4/18)
d) Applying push to the well :
Light push can be applied by driving a strut between the well and
the bank. The strut is made tight by driving wedges. For applying heavy
push, two timbers or struts of steel of suitable section are tied together in
the shape of a nut cracker with the handles spread apart and the load is
placed at the hinge. Care should be taken to see that the push is not
excessive.
e) Packing the low side of the well with sand bags under the splayed
portion.
This can be adopted only when sinking is done under dewatered
conditions either by pumping or using compressed air. The side which is
lower is packed with sand bags and excavation is carried out only on the
high side. This method should be used cautiously if the depth of the well
is shallow and when the well is resting on a sloping rock surface.
425. Use of divers for sinking
When dewatering is not possible and the use of pneumatic
equipment for sinking is uneconomical, divers can be deployed for the
removal of obstruction or clearing the strata. No man suffering from any
chronic disease, alcoholic excess, ear or heart troubles or having a
sluggish blood circulation or who has excess of fat should be employed as
a diver. Theoretically a diver can work upto a maximum depth of water
of 75 metres. But in practice it may be limited to about 35 metres. Any
diver who will be employed in depths beyond 10 metres should be
medically certified. The descending and ascending should be done
slowly so that the diver can adjust himself to the pressures at various
depths. Durations of ascends and stoppages at various depths and stay
under water at various pressures as laid down in the relevant British
standard Specifications should be strictly adhered to.
426. Pneumatic sinking of well
1. Pneumatic sinking is used when other methods are not found
feasible, particularly when the wells have to pass through considerable
depths of intervening layers of rock or when the bed is full of large
boulders or interlocked small boulders. This method may be employed
for depths varying from 12 metres to 33 metres.
2. The inside of the well is made into a closed air tight box chamber
and all water from this chamber is expelled out by letting in compressed
air. The pressure of air inside the chamber should be maintained at
approximately 0.12 kg/cm2 above atmospheric pressure per metre depth
below water level.
The dredging operation may be carried out inside the chamber in
near dry condition. The compressed air arrangements are then removed
and sand filling etc. of the well are completed as for the open dredging.
The working chamber must be practically air and water tight and yet
there must be an opening for men to enter and leave the chamber, as
well as an inlet and outlet for materials. These opening are provided with
vertical shafts and air locks. A typical arrangement showing the chamber
with the vertical shaft and air lock is at Annexure 4/19.
3. Precautions while working in air lock chamber :
a) The lock usually becomes warm and water is required to be
sprayed on its outside to keep the temperature down.
b) Workmen should be medically examined before they are
selected.
c) Working time, rest intervals and time and rate of decompression
must be carefully regulated when the pressure exceeds 0.7 kg/cm2
above atmospheric pressure.
d) Medical arrangements under a medical officer specially trained in
caisson disease must be ensured when the working pressure is more
than 1.75 kg/cm2 above atmosphere and there must be a medical lock.
 e) The rate of decompression specified should be followed. Working
above a pressure of 3.5 kg/cm2 above atmospheric pressure is not
allowed except in emergency.
f) The steining concrete for wells to be sunk using pneumatic
caissons should be as dense as possible to reduce the pore pressure
caused by air under pressure trying to escape through fine pores in
concrete.
g) The joints should be made as airtight as possible to prevent
escape of air. Waterproof cement plastering can be resorted to on the
inside face of steining.
427. Founding the well
1. Settling the well by blasting:
After loading the well as specified a small charge of one or two
gelignite sticks of 50 gm each is exploded at the centre of the well at the
level of straight portion of cutting edge. The well should not go down by
more than 25mm. If it goes down, the necessity of further sinking should
be examined.
2. Dressing the bottom of the well:
a) As far as possible, the well shall be evenly seated on sound rock
devoid of fissures, cavities, etc.
b) One or more cylindrical holes may be made in the base to give
good anchorage to the well. (Annexure 4/20 a). Alternatively, anchorage
can be provided by the rock itself which is allowed to remain projecting at
the centre. (Annexure 4/20 b).
c) In shallow wells and wells resting on rock a few holes may be
drilled and MS dowels fixed in them for providing a good bond between
 the base rock and the bottom plug.
d) In case of sand overlaying steeply sloping rocky base below, it is
preferable to bench the rock and take the well down to have a proper
base. Where this is not feasible, a number of small wells or piles are
sunk or driven through the sand till they penetrate into the base rock
(Annexure 4/20 c & d)
428. Bottom plugging of the well
Bottom plugging can be started immediately after the
final sinking and dressing up of the bottom. Placing of concrete
in plug can be perfectly done in dry condition or under
compressed air. In either case the concrete is taken down in
buckets or skip boxes whose bottom can be opened and closed
by operating a wire rope from the winch. Another alternative is to
place concrete through a tremie. When ingress of water is too
heavy for pumping, concreting should be done first under dry
condition (filled in gunny bags) all round below the cutting edge
for plugging the water coming in, after which dewatering can be
done and plug concrete placed in the middle.
429. Sand hearting
Forty eight hours after the completion of the concreting of
the bottom plug, the well should be filled up with clean sand or
sand and shingle or dredged sand not mixed with clay upto 1.5
to 1.75 m below the top of the well. It would be desirable to flood
the sand with water for proper consolidation and then pump out
the surplus water from the top.
430. Construction of the top plug
 The construction of the top plug should be started only
after the
sand filling has settled thoroughly and tested by
ramming.
(ACS 15 dtd. 05.08.2008) 431. Setting
out of the piers on the top of well

The centre line of the bridge as also of the well should

be marked on the top plug of the well. Any shifting of the well
should thus be ascertained, and the capping slab built on the
centre line of the bridge.
432. Construction of the top plug.

The construction of the top plug should be started only after the sand
filling has settled thoroughly and tested by ramming.