A system

An organised set of related components that work together in a specific

environment to achievea common goal.
. Is a set of items linked together to carry out a given task in order to achieve one
or more objectives.
A system is described as being either
Soft OR hardsystem,
Soft systems and hard systems
Soft systems – human activity are said to be soft systems. They are
saidto be soft because:
Their boundaries may be fluid or keep on changing.
Their goals andobjectives conflict.
It’ s difficult to precisely define exact measures of
performance for them.
Hard systems – these are systems whose goals and objectives are clearly
defined and the outcomes from the systems processes are predictable and can
be modeled accurately.
System classification
Deterministic system – these are systems whose output are known precisely by
their inputs e.g. a computer system.
Probabilistic system – these are systems whose output can only be predicted
but not knows precisely e.g. business andeconomic system organisation.
Cybernetic systems – these are self-controlling systems which adapt to the
environment and regulate their own behaviour by accessing the feedback. They
access their output and adjust the input e.g. human beings, plants systems
Characteristic of systems
1. Holistic thinking
2. Sub systems
3. Processor
4. Objectives/purpose
5. Environment
6. Boundaries
7. Interdependence
 8. Feedback
9. Control
10. Inputs and Outputs
11. System Entropy

Holistic thinking and sub systems

Holistic thinking – in this, a system is consideredas a whole. A combination
of various components that makes up a system creates a complex whole
whose overall goals are more sophisticated than those of the individual
components.
Sub systems – a system is made up of different components (subsystem).
Therefore a system does not exist in solitude but it may be a component of
a large system.
Processor – this is an element of a system that does the actual transformation
of input into output.
Objectives/purpose – objectives of a system may be real or stated. An
organization should state one objective and operate to achieve another user
must know the majorobjective of a system.
Environment – the environment is the system within an organisation operates.
Environment provides a reason for theexistenceof the system.
Boundaries – system boundaries are the external element whose changes in
attitudes, behaviour and property affect their state and are affected respectively
i.e. it’ s the limit of system.
Interdependence – for a system to be effective and efficient, its components or
subsystems must be coordinated andlinked together.
Feedback – a feedback is a check within a system to see whether
predetermined goals are being met. The checks are conducted on a system to
determinedeviation.
Control – this is the process by which the system adapts to changes in the
environment in order to givethe expectedlevel.
 Inputs and outputs – a system communicates with its environment by receiving
inputs and giving output

s.

Entropy means decay. System ‘decay’ naturally over time, hence it

slowly becomes useless to the user either due to improvement in
technology, new management or change in user requirements. Therefore it
must be reviewed in order to improve it or develop a new one.
Openand closed system
An open system receives input from and gives output to the environment
while a closedsystem does not interact with the environment.
Information system
This is a set of persons, procedures and technologies and other resources that collects,
transforms and disseminates information in the system e.g. organisation
Purpose of informationsystem
To provide the people within an organisation with information to assist in
decision making process.
To provide responsive serviceto meet user needs.
To enable sharing of information.
To facilitate interaction and dissemination of data throughout the various
level of organisation.
Why develop new information system?
New changes in organisation – management can introduce new changes,
andthey have to be implement to meet the needs of the organisation.
 Problems in the current system – the undesirable circumstances in the
current system that prevent theorganisation from meeting its goal.
New opportunities – if an opportunity presents itself that can enable the
organisations improve its services.
Theories of system development
The most common theories include:
Traditional Approach.
RapidApplication Development (RAD).
The Structured Approach
Traditional Approach
This approach relies mostly on the skills and experience of individual staff
members carrying out of the project. In this approach, the manual system is
replaced with a computerized one without change in overall structure of the
former system. Hence the weakness of the former system are not
addressed, they are forwarded to the new system.

Rapid ApplicationDevelopment (RAD)

RAD model evolved from the theory that business today heavily rely on
information technology, hence, development and implementation of
information system needs to be quick enough for the organisation to
maintain a competitive advantagein the market place.
Rapid Application Development, or RAD, means an adaptive software
development model based on prototyping and quick feedback with less
emphasis on specific planning. In general, the RAD approach prioritizes
development and building a prototype rather than planning. With rapid
application development, developers can quickly make multiple iterations and
updates to the software without starting from scratch. This helps ensure that
the final outcome is more quality-focused and aligns with the end users’
requirements.
 A major challenge with thewaterfall model is that once the product moves
into the testing phase, the tester cannot go back to reiterate and make
changes to thecore functions andfeatures. This essentiallyleaves teams with
softwarethatmayormay not fit theend-users’ evolvingrequirements.

Prototype Model
prototyping model refers to the process of creating a working, partial version of a
system (like a software application) to test and gather feedback from users early in the
development process, allowing for adjustments and refinements to the final design
based on user input before fully developing the system; essentially, it's a preliminary
model used to visualize and validate system concepts with stakeholders.
Prototype Model This model is widely used when the customers are unclear of their
requirements. The initial requirements are gathered from the customers followed by a
quick design. A prototype is developed and shown to the customer for evaluation. Once
the customer is satisfied, full-fledged systems development will be done as shown in
Figure 5. The prototype developed is of two types – Throwaway and Evolutionary. If
the prototype is developed only to get acceptance from customer and discarded
further, then it is known as ‘Throwaway Prototype’ . The Prototype which will be
further developedas the actual system is referred as ‘Evolutionary Prototype’ .
Advantage of Prototype Model
1. Reduce the risk of incorrect user requirement
2. Goodwhere requirement are changing/uncommitted
3. Regular visibleprocess aids management
4. Support earlyproduct marketing
5. Reduce Maintenancecost.
6. Errors can be detected much earlier as the system is made side by side.
Disadvantage of Prototype Model
1. An unstable/badly implemented prototypeoften becomes the final product.
2. Require extensive customer collaboration
o Costs customer money
o Needs committedcustomer
o Difficult to finish if customerwithdraw
o May betoo customer specific, no broad market
3. Difficult to know how longthe project will last.
4. Easy to fall back into the code and fix without proper requirement analysis,
design, customer evaluation,and feedback.
5. Prototyping tools areexpensive.
6. Special tools&techniques are required to builda prototype.
7. It is a time-consuming process.
Phased model methodology
A phased model methodology is a project management approach that breaks down a
project into a series of stages. This methodology is based on the idea that any project
can bedividedinto stages.
In a phased implementation plan, businesses break down projects into smaller,
manageable chunks, each with its own timeline and goals. This strategy gives
organizations time to test all aspects of their product or service before launching it on a
largerscale.

Structured Approach
In this approach a system development defines a set of stages that should
befollowed when developing a system.
a)Waterfall developmentmethodology
In waterfall model, each phase of development should be completed for the next
phase to begin as shown in Figure below. It follows a down-hill fashion and each
phase interacts with the next phase through documentation. Proposed by
[Link] [1], this model is useful in situations where requirements do not
change andwork proceeds in a linear fashion.
Many consider the waterfall method to be the most traditional software
development method. The waterfall methodis a rigid linear model that consists of
sequential phases (requirements, design, implementation, verification,
maintenance) focusing on distinct goals. Each phase must be 100% complete
before the next phase can start. There’ s usually no process for going back to
modify the project or direction.
 Advantages
 Simpleand easy to understandand use
 Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model. Each phase has specific
deliverables and a review process.
 Phases areprocessed andcompleted one at a time.
 Works well forsmaller projects where requirements are very well understood.
 Clearly definedstages.
 Well understood milestones.
 Easy to arrange tasks.
 Process and results arewell documented.
The major disadvantages of the Waterfall Model are as follows −
 No working software is produced until late during thelife cycle.
 High amounts of risk and uncertainty.
 Not a goodmodel for complex and object-oriented projects.
 Poor model for long and ongoingprojects.
 Not suitable for theprojects whererequirements are at a moderate to high risk of
changing. So,risk and uncertaintyis high with this process model.
 It is difficult to measure progress within stages.
 Cannotaccommodatechangingrequirements.
 Adjusting scope during the lifecycle can enda project.
 Integration is done as a "big-bang. at the very end,which doesn't allow identifying
any technological or business bottleneck or challenges early.

V-Model
V-Model is a variation of the Waterfall model aimed at improving the quality of system
by giving more focus to testing throughout the lifecycle. In this model, each activity of
development in the left side has a corresponding testing activity in the right side as
shown in Figure below.

Advantages of V-Model
 This is a highly disciplined model and Phases are completed one at a time.
 V-Model is used for small projects where project requirements are clear.
 Simple and easy to understand and use.
 This model focuses on verification and validation activities early in the life cycle
thereby enhancing the probability of building an error-free and good quality
product.
 It enables project management to track progress accurately.
 Clear and Structured Process: The V-Model provides a clear and structured
process for software development, making it easier to understand and follow.
 Emphasis on Testing: The V-Model places a strong emphasis on testing, which
helps to ensure the quality and reliability of the software.
 Improved Traceability: The V-Model provides a clear link between the
requirements and the final product, making it easier to trace and manage changes
to the software.
 Better Communication: The clear structure of the V-Model helps to improve
communication between the customer and the development team.
Disadvantages of V-Model
 High risk and uncertainty.
 It is not good for complex and object-oriented projects.
 It is not suitable for projects where requirements are not clear and contain a
high risk of changing.
 This model does not support iteration of phases.
 It does not easily handle concurrent events.
 Inflexibility: The V-Model is a linear and sequential model, which can make it
difficult to adapt to changing requirements or unexpected events.
 Time-Consuming: The V-Model can be time-consuming, as it requires a lot of
documentation and testing.
 Overreliance on Documentation: The V-Model places a strong emphasis on
documentation, which can lead to an overreliance on documentation at the
expense of actual development work.
Iterative Model
In the Iterativemodel, iterative process starts with a simpleimplementation of a small
set of the software requirements anditerativelyenhances the evolving versions until the
complete system is implementedand ready to bedeployed.
An iterative lifecycle model does not attempt to start with a full specification of
requirements. Instead,development begins by specifying andimplementingjust part of
thesoftware, which is then reviewed to identify further requirements. This process is
then repeated, producing a new version of the software at theendof each iteration of
themodel.

Spiral Model
What is Spiral Model? Spiral Model is a risk-driven software development process
model. It is a combination of waterfall model and iterative model. Spiral Model helps to
adopt software development elements of multiple process models for the software
project based on unique risk patterns ensuring efficient development process. Each
phase of spiral model in software engineering begins with a design goal and ends with
theclient reviewingthe progress
 The advantages of the Spiral SDLC Model are as follows −
 Changingrequirements can be accommodated.
 Allows extensive use of prototypes.
 Requirements can be captured moreaccurately.
 Users seethe system early.
 Development can be divided into smaller parts and the risky parts can be
developed earlier which helps in better risk management.
The disadvantages of theSpiral SDLC Model are as follows −
 Management is more complex.
 End of the project may not be known early.
 Not suitable for small or low risk projects and could be expensive for small
projects.
 Process is complex
 Spiral may go on indefinitely.
 Large number of intermediate stages requires excessive documentation.
Stage of system development
Problem recognition and definition
Information gathering
Requirements specification
System design
System construction
System implementation
Problem recognition and definition
Problem recognition is the initial stage where the analyst decides if the
project is really necessary to look into, and if its necessary to start a new
project. In problem definition, the problem must be thoroughly defined. A
through survey of the problem is undertaken by identifying the problem,
understanding it, and finding out if there is a possibility of getting a solution.
Before a new system is designed, a special study will be carried out to
establish the costs and benefits of a new system. The study is called
feasibilitystudy. Feasibility study of a system is accessed in four ways.
Operational feasibility
Technical feasibility
Economic feasibility
Schedule feasibility
Operational feasibilityand technical feasibility
Operational feasibility – this establishes the extent to which the users are
comfortable or happywith the proposed ornew system.
Technical feasibility – this establishes whether the technology available is
sufficientor can be upgraded for thenew system.
Economic feasibility – it establishes whether the technology available is
sufficientor can be upgraded for thenew system.
Schedule feasibility – it establishes whether the development of the
proposedsystem will beaccomplishedwithin theavailable time.
Information gathering
The system analyst gathers data about the current system and the users
needs from both internal and external sources. Some of the methods used
to collect or gather data include:
Record inspection
Interview
Questionnaires
Record inspection and interview
The documents maintained in connection to the system are referenced.
This forms a good starting point for the analyst to gain an overall insight of
the existing system.
Interview – this is a face to face communication between the analysts as
the interviewer and the affected personnel as interviewee. The questions
are geared to getting theinformation needed by the analysts.

Advantages of interview
The analysts is accessible to first class information.
Make interviewee feel as part of thesystem.
Give adequate opportunity for interviewee, an opportunity to put forward
opinions.
Disadvantages of interview
Make the interviewee feel they arebeing summoned by the analysts.
Some interviewees give answers which are not actually proven facts but
opinions.
The interviewee maynot fully open on some issues thatmay bepersonal.
 The interviewee maybe suspicious of the intentions of theproposed system
for fear of being displacedby new system.
Questionnaires
A questionnaire is a document containing a number of standard questions
set to be asked to a larger number of people in order to gather information
from them. Theanalyst is able to collect information from several key people
in the organization who maybe affected bythe current proposedsystem.

When the use questionnaire

When limited amount of information is required from a large number of
people.
There is a large number of people involvedin the system project.
The people you need to gather information from are vastly despersed.
Advantages of questionnaires
Answers filled in less tense environment.
Since they are filled and returned in privacy, more sincere responses are
possible.
Questionnaire provides many people with the opportunity to provide input
andsuggestion.
Questionnaire saves time especially where respondents are geographically
scattered

Disadvantages of questionnaires
 It’ s a slow wayof facts gathering.
Designing questionnaires requires expertise.
Some questions can be easily misunderstood hence ambiguous replies will
bereceived.
Analysis of questionnaires requires a lot of time.
Observation
This requires the observer to participate or watch closely as a person performs
activities in order to learn about the system. This method gives the analysts first-hand
experience about the problems and expenses to the system requirements
Advantages of observation
Concepts that are too difficult for non-technical staff to explain can be
observed.
It helps the analysts become acquainted with operational personnel.
It helps the analysts acquire ‘know how’ needed to assist in changes
that havebeen recommended.
Can correct ‘hazy’ understanding or erroneous impressions.
Disadvantages of observation
It’ s costly and time consuming.
Staff members are not comfortablewhen they are being watched.
Automated method
This is mostly used when actual data is required but difficult to get through
interviews, observation or questionnaires. Such data is collected using
devices that automatically capture data from the source. E.g. video,
cameras,tape recorders etc.
Requirements specification
The system analyst must come with the detailed requirements for the new
system. The requirements specifications include:
Output specification
Input specification
File/data stores
Hardware and softwarerequirements
Outputspecification
 The output specifications entails activities like generation of reports used to
facilitate decision making. The output can be in the form of reports either in
hardcopy or softcopy. The quality of those reports is important. Formality of
reports is important so that good quality reports are produced for easy
understanding.
Input specification
The input to the system in necessary because the contents of the input are
used to maintain the master files. The following should be considered in
input specification.
The contents and volume of input.
The modeand devices of input selected.
Layout andsequence of input.
File/datastores
File requirement involves making an informed decision on file required to
store data and information in the system. The analyst should identify the
number of files that will be needed by the system and determine the
structure of each file.
Hardware and software requirements
System analyst should specify all hardware and software requirements for
the new system. He/she should consider:
Economic factors e.g. price
Operational factors e.g. reliability
User friendliness.
System design
This involves detailing the physical design of the system, it’ s the how of
the process. Once the logical design is put lined during system analysis, the
analyst determines the physical design, which describes the hardware,
software and operating procedures required to make system operational.
Several tools are used for designing an information system. Examples are
flowchart, data flow diagram, requirements.
System construction
 This refers to coding, installation and testing of the modules and their
components such as outputs, inputs and files. The purpose of the
construction is to develop and test a functional system that fulfills the
business and design requirements.
Testing the system
The system is tested by entering some test data to find out whether its
output are as expected. The system is tested using the requirements
specifications and the design specification to find out whether it meets all
requirements specified.
System implementation
This involves installing the system in the user’ s computers, testing the
installed system, converting from old system to the new one and training
the users. System implementation involves:
File creation and conversion.
Change over.
Staff training
File creation and conversion
This involves settingup ofthe masterfiles that areto be used in the support
of the new system. The setting can be either from scratch or just to convert
the files that were employed in oldsystem.
Training staff
The training aim at:
Convincing the staff of the user department on the
effectiveness of the new system.
Remove fear of change from them.
Enabling the staff to cope with processing task of the new
system.
Methods of training
Demonstration
Film show
Manual reference
 Group discussion
Visits
Changeover
This is theprocess of changing over from old system to the new system.
Typeof changeover
Direct changeover
Parallel changeover
Phase changeover
Direct changeover
In this approach the new system commence live operation and immediately
the oldsystemis abandoned.
Advantage of direct changeover
It’ s a cheapmethod
Disadvantages of direct changeover
Extremely risky
Places an organization in a do or diesituation.
Parallel changeover
In this changeover the operation of the old system and the new system run
alongside each other.
Advantages of parallel changeover
Provides a method of training in the new system.
Personnel become familiar with the new system prior to actual
changeover.
Disadvantages of parallel changeover
Costly to run two systems
Cross checking is difficult
Requires more staff hence more training required for additional
staff
Phase changeover
In this approach implementation is done only one part of the new system at
one time ora stepby step.
Advantages of phasechangeover
 Allow the system to beimplementedquickly
Less costly
Failures of the system arelimited
Causes minimal disruption
Disadvantage of phase changeover
Problems on ensuring that the first phase is implemented and
converted.
System review and maintenance
System maintenance is the adjustment and enhancement or correction of
errors after the system has been implemented. Thereviewinginvolves going
through the specification and testing the system after implementation to
find out whether it still meets the original specification.
System documentation consists of
Report of fact finding which outlines methods used to collect data,
weakness of the current system and recommendation of the current
system.
Requirements specification which entails the output requirements, input,
hardwareand software required for the new system.
System flowchart which shows the overall functionality of te proposed
information system.
Tables or file structures depending on the approach used in system
construction.
Sample test data to test whether the new computerized information system
is working as expected.
User manual which helps the user work with the new system with minimal
guidance. The manual contains information like
How to install, start the system
The interfaceof the system
How to carry out various tasks
Error correction and how to get help

Review questions 1
 1. Define theterminformation system.
2. Differentiate between soft systems and hard systems.
3. List five characteristics of a system.
4. What is systemcontrol?
5. Why do we need feedback in a system?
6. Explain the tem system boundary.
7. Stateand explain threepurposes of information systems in organisations.
[Link] thetermonline analytical processing?
9. Draw a well labelled diagram that depicts a system that is controlled
through feedback.
10. Explain three system development theories andmethods.
11. State the main disadvantage of Rapid Application Development method.
12. Definethe term system development lifecycle.
13. At what stage does the system change hands from thedevelopment stage to the users.
14. Highlight three circumstances that necessitate the development of new information
systems.
15. Definethe term feasibility study as used in system development.
16. State four methods that can be used to gather information duringsystem development.
17. State two advantages of interview over questionnaires.
18. State two disadvantages of interview method when used for information gathering.
19. Give one example of automated information gatheringtechnique.