GRADE-12 PSYCHOLOGY
CHAPTER-1 VARIATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES NOTES
● Individual differences
Individual differences refer to distinctiveness and variations among people’s characteristics
and behaviour patterns.
● Approaches explaining individual differences in psychological functioning.
1. Trait Approach: Personal traits cause change in behaviours. [INTERNAL FACTORS]
2. Situationism is a view which states that situations and circumstances in which one is
placed to influence one’s behaviour. [EXTERNAL FACTORS]
3. The situationist perspective views human behaviour relatively more as a result of
influence of external (situational) factors than personality traits.
ASSESSMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES
• Assessment
1. Predict future behaviour-intervention to affect a change in behaviour.
2. First step in understanding a psychological attribute.
• Formal Assessment: Objective, standardized, organized—psychologists are trained in
making formal assessment.
• Informal Assessment: It varies from case to case/one assessor to another—open to
subjective interpretation.
• Attributes:
1. Attributes chosen for assessment depend upon the purpose, e.g., improvement of a weak
student intellectual strengths and weaknesses are measured.
2. An attribute will be said to exist in a person only if it can be measured by using scientific
procedures.
● Psychological assessment uses systematic testing procedures to evaluate abilities, behaviours, and personal
qualities of individuals.
SOME DOMAINS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES
Psychological Definition Uses of Test
Attributes
1. Intelligence Global capacity to understand the Provides a global measure of
world, think rationally, and use general cognitive competence
available resources effectively including the ability to profit from
when faced with challenges schooling.
2. Aptitude An individual’s underlying Used to predict an individual’s
potential for acquiring skills. capability if given the proper
environment and training
3. Interest An individual’s preference for Helps decide what subjects/courses
engaging in one or more specific can be pursued comfortably and
activities relative to others. with pleasure.
4. Personality Relatively enduring Measures unique characteristics,
characteristics of a person that explains and predicts future
make her behaviour
or him distinct from others.
5. Values Enduring beliefs about an ideal Determines the dominant values
mode of behaviour of a person.
ASSESSMENT METHODS
Assessment Definition Uses of Method
Methods
[Link] Test Objective and standardized Clinical diagnosis, guidance,
measure of an individual’s mental personnel selection, placement,
and/or behavioural characteristics and training
2. Interview Seeking information from a person Counsellor-client interaction,
on a one-to-one basis employee selection, journalism
3. Case Study In-depth study of the individual Clinical psychologists, based on
in terms of his/her psychological data generated using different
attributes, physiological history in methods
the context of his/her psychosocial
and physical environment.
4. Observation In-depth study of the individual Disadvantages
in terms of his/her psychological 1. Observer has little control over
attributes, physiological history in the the situation.
context of his/her psychosocial 2. Reports may suffer from
and physical environment. subjective interpretations of
the observe
5. Self-Report Employing systematic, organized, Obtained by an interview schedule,
and objective procedures to record questionnaire, psychological test,
behavioural phenomena occurring personal diary
naturally in real time.
DEFINITION OF INTELLIGENCE
The Oxford Dictionary explains intelligence as the power of perceiving, learning, understanding, and
knowing.
Alfred Binet was one of the first psychologists who worked on intelligence. He defined intelligence as the
ability to judge well, understand well, and reason well.
Wechsler:
The global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act
purposefully, and to deal effectively with his/her environment.
• Understood intelligence in terms of its functionality, i.e., its value for adaption to the
environment.
• Intelligence test most widely used.
Gardner and Sternberg:
• An intelligent individual not only adapts to the environment, but also actively modifies
or shapes it.
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
Psychometric/Structural Approach Information-Processing Approach
Considers intelligence as an aggregate of abilities Describes the processes used in intellectual
reasoning and problem solving.
Expresses an individual’s performance in terms of Focus on how an intelligent person acts,
a single index of cognitive abilities. emphasizes studying cognitive functions
Focus on knowing the structure of intelligence underlying intelligent behaviour
PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH:
1. Uni/One-Factor Theory (Alfred Binet):
● The ability to judge well, understand well, and reason well.
● First psychologist who formalized the concept of intelligence in terms of mental
operations.
● Differentiating more intelligent from less intelligent individuals.
● Conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities which can be used for solving any or
every problem in an individual’s environment.
2. Two-Factor Theory (Charles Spearman) [1927]:
● Employed a statistical method called factor analysis.
● Intelligence consists of a general factor (G-factor) and specific factors (S-factor).
( i) G-Factor: It includes mental operations which are primary and common to all
performances.
( ii) S-Factor: It includes specific abilities which allow individuals to excel in their
respective domains
3. Theory of Primary Mental Abilities (Louis Thurstone):
( i) Verbal Comprehension (grasping meaning of words, concepts, and ideas).
( ii) Numerical Abilities (speed and accuracy in numerical and computational skills).
( iii) Spatial Relations (visualizing patterns and forms).
( iv) Perceptual Speed (speed in perceiving details).
( v) Word Fluency (using words fluently and flexibly).
( vi) Memory (accuracy in recalling information).
( vii) Inductive Reasoning (deriving general rules from presented facts).
4. Hierarchical Model of Intelligence (Arthur Jensen)
Abilities operates at two levels:
Level I – Associative learning. [output is equal to input, rote memory]
Level II – Cognitive competence. [output is more than input]
5. Structure of Intellect Model (J.P. Guilford) [1988]:
Classifies intellectual traits among three dimensions—operations, contents and product.
Operations are what the respondent does. These include cognition, memory recording, memory retention,
divergent production, convergent production, and evaluation.
Contents refer to the nature of materials or information on which intellectual operations are performed. These
include visual, auditory, symbolic (e.g., letters, numbers), semantic (e.g., words) and behavioural (e.g.,
information about people’s behaviour, attitudes, needs, etc.).
Products refer to the form in which information is processed by the respondent. Products are classified into
units, classes, relations, systems, transformations, and implications. Since this classification (Guilford, 1988)
includes 6*5*6 categories, therefore, the model has 180 cells. Each cell is expected to have at least one factor
or ability; some cells may have more than one factor. Each factor is described in terms of all three dimensions.
INFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACH:
1. Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner):
• Intelligence is not a single entity; distinct types of intelligences exist independent of each other.
• Different types of intelligences interact and work together to find a solution to a problem.
• Studied persons who had shown exceptional abilities in their respective areas and described eight types of
intelligence.
(i) Linguistic: The capacity to use language fluently and flexibly to express one’s
thinking and understand other. Persons high on this ‘word-smart’, e.g., poets and writers.
(ii) Logical-Mathematical: Skills in problem solving, thinking logically and critically and abstract reasoning ,
e.g., scientists.
(iii) Spatial: The abilities involved in forming, using and transforming mental images (visual images and
patterns), e.g., sculptors, painters, architects interior decorators.
(iv) Musical: The capacity to produce, create and manipulate musical rhythms and patterns.
(v) Bodily-Kinaesthetic: The use of the whole body or portions of it creatively and flexibly for display,
construction of products and problem solving, e.g., athletes, dancers, actors.
( vi) Interpersonal: Skill of an individual to understand the needs, motives feelings and behaviours of other
people for better understanding and relationship. High among psychologists’ counsellors’ politicians.
(vii) Intrapersonal: Refers to the awareness of one’s own feelings, motives, desires, knowledge of one’s
internal strengths and limitations and using that knowledge to effectively relate to others, e.g., philosophers.
(viii) Naturalistic: Complete awareness of our relationship with the natural world and sensitivity to the
features of the natural world, e.g., botanists, zoologists.
2. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Robert Sternberg) [1985]:
The ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and
culture.
• Three Basic Types of Intelligence:
(i) Componential Intelligence/Analytical Intelligence: The analysis of information to solve problems
Three components:
( a) Knowledge Acquisition- responsible for learning and acquisition of the ways of doing things.
( b) Meta or Higher Order Component- planning concerning what to do and how to do it.
( c) Performance Component-actually doing things .
(ii) Experiential/Creative Intelligence:
Using past experiences creatively to solve novel problems.
Ability to integrate different experiences in an original way to make new discoveries and inventions.
Quickly find out what information is crucial in a given situation.
(iii) Contextual/Practical Intelligence: The ability to deal with environmental demands encountered on a
daily basis
may be called ‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’
easily adapt to their present environment/select a more favourable
environment, modify the environment to fit their needs.
3. Planning, Attention–arousal and Simultaneous-Successive (PASS) Model of Intelligence (J.P. Das, Jack
Naglieri, and Kirby (1994).
● Intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of three
neurological systems, called the functional units of brain
These units are responsible for
(i) Arousal/Attention:
● Arousal and attention enable a person to process information.
● An optimal level of arousal focuses our attention to the relevant aspects of a problem.
● Too much or too little arousal would interfere with attention and attend to stimuli.
(ii) Simultaneous and Successive Processing:
● Simultaneous: Perceive the relations among various concepts and integrate them into a meaningful pattern for
comprehension, e.g., RSPM.
Successive: Remember all the information serially so that the recall of one leads to the recall of another, e.g.,
learning of digits, letters.
(iii) Planning:
● Allows us to think of the possible courses of action, implement them to reach a target, and evaluate their
effectiveness.
● If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the requirements of the task or situation.
● These PASS processes operate on a knowledge base developed either formally (by reading, writing, and
experimenting) or informally from the environment.
● These processes are interactive and dynamic in nature; yet each has its own distinctive function.
● Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) (Das and Naglieri):
● Battery of tests meant for individuals between 5-18 years of age.
● Consists of verbal as well as non-verbal tasks that measure basic cognitive functions presumed to be
independent of schooling.
● Results of assessment can be used to remedy cognitive deficits of children with learning problems.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE:
Intelligence: Interplay of Nature and Nurture
● The evidence for hereditary influences on intelligence comes mainly from studies on twins
and adopted children.
Relationship Reared Reared apart
together
Identical Twins 0.90 0.72
Fraternal Twins 0.60
Sibling 0.50 0.25
CORRELATION OF INTELLIGENCE
● The intelligence of identical twins reared together correlate almost 0.90.
● Twins separated early in childhood also show considerable similarity in their intellectual, personality and
behavioural characteristics.
● The intelligence of identical twins reared in different environments correlate 0.72, those of fraternal twins
reared together correlate almost 0.60, and those of brothers and sisters reared together correlate about 0.50,
while siblings reared apart correlate about 0.25.
● Another line of evidence comes from the studies of adopted children, which show that children’s intelligence is
more similar to their biological rather than adoptive parents.
● Role of Environment—as children grow in age, their intelligence level tends to move
closer to that of their adoptive parents.
● Disadvantaged Children—adopted into families with higher socio-economic status
exhibit a large increase in their intelligence scores.
1. Environmental deprivation lowers intelligence while rich nutrition, good family
background, and quality schooling increases intelligence.
2. There is a general consensus among psychologists that intelligence is a product of
complex interaction of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture).
3. Heredity sets a range within which an individual’s development is actually shaped by
the support and opportunities of the environment.
ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE
● 1905: Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon made the first successful attempt to formally
measure intelligence.
● 1908: Gave the concepts of:
Mental Age (MA) is the measure of a person’s intellectual development relative topeople of her/his age-group.
Chronological Age (CA) is the biological age from birth.
● Retardation was defined by Binet as being being two mental age years below the chronological age.
● 1912: William Stern, a German psychologist, devised the concept of Intelligence
Quotient (IQ). IQ refers to ratio between MA and CA. Formula—mental age
divided by chronological age, and multiplied by 100 (to avoid the decimal point).
• Average IQ in the population is 100, irrespective of age.
• Frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate a bell-shaped curve, called
the normal curve—symmetrical around the central value, called the mean.
Range Category
Below 70 Mental Retardation
90-110 Normal Intelligence
Above 130 Intellectual Giftedness
VARIATIONS IN INTELLIGENCE
● Intelligence Deficiency (Mentally Retarded/Challenged):
The American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) views mental retardation as significantly
sub-average general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behaviour and
manifested during the developmental period
● In order to be judged as mentally retarded, a person must show:
(i) Significantly sub average intellectual functioning, e.g., IQ below 70.
(ii) Deficits in adaptive behaviour or the capacity to be independent and deal effectively with one’s
environment.
(iii) Deficits must be observed during the developmental period, i.e., between 0-18 years.
IQ Range Retardation
55–69 Mild
40–54 Moderate
25–39 Severe
Below 25 Profound
● Mild retardation—development is typically slower than that of their peers but they can
function quite independently, hold jobs and families. Level of retardation increases—lag
behind their peers in language and motor skills, need to be trained in self-care skills and
simple social and communication skills.
● Individuals with profound and severe disability are incapable of managing life and need constant care for
their entire lives.
2. Intellectual Giftedness
● Lewis Terman (1925): Study to show how intelligence was related to occupational success
and life adjustment. These individual shows higher performance because of their outstanding
potentialities.
● Giftedness is exceptional general ability shown in superior performance in a wide variety of
areas.
• Teacher’s perspective: depends on a combination of high ability, high creativity
and high commitment.
• Early signs of intellectual superiority: during infancy show larger attention span,
good memory, sensitivity to environmental changes, early appearance of language skills.
• Other characteristics are advanced logical thinking and problem solving, high speed
in processing information, high level creative thinking, high self-esteem, independence.
• Incorrect to equate with brilliant academic performance: each gifted student
possesses different strengths, personalities and characteristics, e.g., athletes.
● Talent refers to remarkable ability in a specific field, e.g., social, and are often called
prodigies.
TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS
Individual or Group Test
Group test Individual test
Can be administered to several persons Can be administered to one person at a time
simultaneously
Do not allow an opportunity to be familiar Require the test administrator to establish a
with subject’s feelings rapport with the subject.
Seek written answers in an MCQ format Allow answer oral/written answers or
manipulation of objects.
Verbal, Non-verbal or performance Tests
Verbal Non-Verbal Performance
Require verbal responses Use pictures or illustrations Require subjects to manipulate
in either oral or written as test items, e.g., RSPM objects to perform a task;
form. written language not necessary
for answering.
Can only be administered Can be easily administered to
to literate people. persons from different cultures
Culture-Fair or Culture-Biased Tests
Culture Biased Culture Fair
Show a bias to the culture developed in eg type of Can be applied meaningfully to all cultures.
questions and language usage.
Culturally appropriate—does not discriminate
against individuals of different cultures.
CULTURE AND INTELLIGENCE
● A major characteristic of intelligence is that it helps individuals to adapt to their environment.
● The cultural environment provides a context for intelligence to develop.
● Culture is a collective system of customs, beliefs, attitudes and achievements in art and literature.
● Sternberg: Notion of contextual or practical intelligence implies that intelligence is a product of
● culture.
● Vygotsky (Russian psychologist): Culture provides a social context in which people live, grow and understand
the world around them.
● Elementary mental functions (e.g., walking, crying) are universal; the manner in which higher menta functions
such as problem solving and thinking operate are largely culture produced.
Technological Intelligence Integral Intelligence
Technologically advanced societies. Less developed societies.
Personal achievement founded on abilities of Social and emotional skill in relating to
reasoning and judgement are emphasized people are valued
Focus on cognitive parameters—persons are Holistic perspective, emphasized connectivity
well versed in skills of attention, observation, with the social and world environment. Equal attention
analysis, performance, speed and achievement given to cognitive and non-cognitive processes and
orientation. their integration.
Facets of intelligence
● Cognitive capacity (sensitivity to context, understanding, discrimination, problem solving and effective
communication).
● Social competence (respect for social order, commitment to elders, the young and the needy, concern about
others and recognizing others perspectives).
● Emotional competence (self-regulation and self-monitoring of emotions, honesty, politeness, good conduct
and self-evaluation).
● Entrepreneurial competence (commitment, persistence, patience, hard work, vigilance and goal directed
behaviour)
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
● Emotional intelligence is a set of skills that underlie accurate appraisal, expression and
● regulation of emotions. It is the feeling side of intelligence.
(i) Emotional Quotient (EQ) is used to express emotional intelligence in the same way as IQ is used to
express intelligence.
(ii) Salovey and Mayer: The ability to monitor one’s own and other’s emotions, to discriminate among them
and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions.
● SPECIAL ABILITIES
Aptitude: Nature and measurement
● Aptitude indicates an individual’s capacity to acquire some specific knowledge or skill after training.
(i) People with similar intelligence differed widely in acquiring certain knowledge or skills, called aptitudes.
(ii) With proper training these abilities can be considerably enhanced.
● Interest is a preference for a particular activity; aptitude is the potentiality to perform that activity.
● In order to be successful in a particular field, a person must have both aptitude and interest.
Aptitude Tests
Independent (Specialized) Multiple (Generalized)
Clerical, mechanical, numerical and typing Differential Aptitude Test (DAT), General
aptitude tests Aptitude Tests Battery (GATB)
CREATIVITY
● Creativity refers to the ability to produce ideas, objects and problem solutions that are novel
● and appropriate.
● It refers to the ability to think in novel and unusual ways and to came up with unique solutions
● to problems.
● Creativity involves the production of same thing new and original–it may be an idea, object or
● solution to a problem.
● Creativity can get manifested in different levels and in different areas.
● Everyday creativity could be reflected in day to day activities like writing, teaching, storytelling, flower
arrangement, dance etc.
● Special talent creativity/Higher order creativity. It is related to outstanding creative achievements e.g.
inventions and discoveries.
● Creativity is always reality oriented, appropriate, constructive and socially desirable.
● Everyday creativity could be seen in terms of the level and the areas in which they exhibit creativity and that all
may not be operating at the same level.
● Researchers suggest that children mostly express their imagination through physical activities and in nonverbal
ways, although when language and intellectual functions are fully developed and store of knowledge is
adequately available then creativity is expressed through verbal modes too.
● There is no disagreement that creativity in determined by both heredity and environment.
● Limits of the creative potential are set by heredity.
● Environmental factors stimulate the development of creativity.
● No amount of training can transform an average person to develop special talent creativity or higher order
creativity like Tagore, Einstein or Shakespeare.
CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE:
● Certain level of intelligence in necessary to be creative, but a high level of intelligence, however does not
ensure that a person would certainly be creative.
● Researchers have found that both high and law level of creativity can be formed in highly intelligent children
and also children of average intelligence.
● Relation between creativity and intelligence is positive.
Creativity Tests Intelligence Tests
These tests use open ended questions. These tests use close ended questions
Maximum scope to assess expression of Measure abilities which involve convergent thinking
spontaneity, originality and imagination
Focus on divergent thinking. Focus on assessing abilities
GUILFORD, KHATANA, PARAMESH BAQER MEHDI and PASSI developed
creativity tests
See relationships between unrelated things Person has to think right solution
BY,
[Link]