CHAPTER 12: ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature where living organisms interact with each other and their physical
environment.
• Size Variation: They vary from a small pond to a large forest or sea. The entire biosphere is considered a
global ecosystem (a composite of all local ecosystems).
• Categories:
o Terrestrial Ecosystems: Forests, grasslands, and deserts.
o Aquatic Ecosystems: Ponds, lakes, wetlands, rivers, and estuaries.
o Man-made Ecosystems: Crop fields and aquariums.
Natural Ecosystem Artificial Ecosystem
• Self-sustaining or self-regulating. • Not self-sustaining or
• Examples: non-self-regulating.
• Man made ecosystem.
Terrestrial Aquatic • Examples:
Desert, Forest, Estuaries, river, Aquarium
Grassland. ocean, pond, Crop field
wetlands. Garden.
12.1 Ecosystem - Structure and Function
The physical structure of an ecosystem is formed by the interaction between its biotic (living) and abiotic (non-
living) components.
• Species Composition: The identification and enumeration of plant and animal species in an ecosystem.
o Tropical rain forest = highest species composition.
• Stratification: The vertical distribution of different species occupying different levels.
o For example, in a forest, trees occupy the top strata, shrubs the second, and herbs/grasses the bottom
layers.
Four Basic Functional Aspects of an Ecosystem:
1. Productivity
2. Decomposition
3. Energy Flow
4. Nutrient Cycling
Example of an Ecosystem (A Pond): A pond is a shallow, self-sustainable water body that exhibits all four basic
components.
• Abiotic Components: Water, dissolved organic/inorganic substances, rich soil deposit, solar input,
temperature, and day-length.
• Autotrophic Components: Phytoplankton, algae, and floating/submerged/marginal plants.
• Consumers: Zooplankton, free-swimming, and bottom-dwelling forms.
• Decomposers: Fungi, bacteria, and flagellates located abundantly at the bottom.
• Functions: Autotrophs convert inorganic material into organic material using radiant solar energy.
Heterotrophs consume autotrophs. Decomposers mineralize dead matter to release it back for reuse.
Energy moves unidirectionally to higher trophic levels and dissipates as heat.
12.2 Productivity
A constant input of solar energy is the basic requirement for ecosystem sustainability.
• Primary Production: The amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over a time period
by plants during photosynthesis.
o It is expressed by weight (g m⁻²) or energy (kcal m⁻²).
• Primary Productivity: The rate of biomass production,
o expressed as g m⁻² yr⁻¹ or kcal m⁻² yr⁻¹.
o Used to compare the productivity of different ecosystem.
o Two types: GPP & NPP.
• Gross Primary Productivity (GPP): The rate of organic matter production during photosynthesis.
• Net Primary Productivity (NPP): Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses (R). This is the
available biomass for the consumption of heterotrophs (herbivores and decomposers).
o Formula: GPP - R = NPP.
• Secondary Productivity: The rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.
• Factors Affecting Primary Productivity: It depends on the inhabiting plant species, environmental
factors, nutrient availability, and plant photosynthetic capacity.
• Global Ecosystem Productivity: The annual NPP of the whole biosphere is ~170 billion tons (dry weight)
of organic matter. Despite occupying 70% of the Earth's surface, oceanic productivity is only 55 billion
tons.
12.3 Decomposition
Decomposition is the process by which decomposers break down complex organic matter into simple inorganic
substances like carbon dioxide, water, and nutrients.
• Detritus: Dead plant remains (leaves, bark, flowers) and animal remains (including fecal matter), which
serve as the raw material for decomposition.
Important Steps of Decomposition:
1. Fragmentation: Detritivores (like earthworms) break down detritus into smaller particles.
2. Leaching: Water-soluble inorganic nutrients seep into the soil horizon and precipitate as unavailable
salts.
3. Catabolism: Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler inorganic substances. (Note:
Fragmentation, leaching, and catabolism operate simultaneously on the detritus).
4. Humification: Occurs in the soil, leading to the accumulation of humus—a dark, amorphous, colloidal
substance that is highly resistant to microbial action, decomposes very slowly, and acts as a reservoir of
nutrients.
5. Mineralisation: Microbes further degrade humus to release inorganic nutrients.
Factors Affecting Decomposition Rate:
• Decomposition is highly oxygen-requiring.
• Chemical composition: Slower if detritus is rich in lignin and chitin; quicker if rich in nitrogen and water-
soluble substances (like sugars).
• Climate: Warm and moist environments favor decomposition. Low temperatures and anaerobiosis inhibit
the process, leading to organic material build-up.
12.4 Energy Flow
Except for deep-sea hydrothermal ecosystems, the Sun is the only energy source for all ecosystems.
• Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR): Accounts for less than 50% of incident solar radiation. Plants
capture only 2-10% of this PAR, which sustains the entire living world.
• Energy flow is unidirectional (Sun ⟶ Producers ⟶ Consumers) and follows the First and Second Laws of
Thermodynamics (energy is needed to counteract disorderliness).
Food Chains and Trophic Levels:
• Producers: Green plants that synthesize food (herbaceous/woody plants on land; phytoplankton, algae,
higher plants in aquatic systems).
• Consumers (Heterotrophs): Depend directly or indirectly on producers.
o Primary Consumers: Herbivores that eat plants (e.g., insects, mammals, aquatic molluscs).
o Secondary Consumers: Primary carnivores that eat herbivores.
o Tertiary Consumers: Secondary carnivores that eat primary carnivores.
• Grazing Food Chain (GFC): Starts with living plants. E.g., Grass (Producer) ⟶ Goat (Primary Consumer)
⟶ Man (Secondary consumer). It is the major conduit for energy flow in aquatic ecosystems.
• Detritus Food Chain (DFC): Begins with dead organic matter. Composed of decomposers/saprotrophs
(mainly fungi and bacteria) that secrete digestive enzymes to break down waste. It is the major energy
conduit in terrestrial ecosystems and connects to the GFC at various levels.
• Food Web: The natural interconnection of multiple food chains.
• Trophic Level: The specific place an organism occupies in a food chain based on its nutrition source.
Trophic levels represent a functional role, not a species (e.g., a sparrow is a primary consumer when
eating seeds, and a secondary consumer when eating insects).
• Standing Crop: The mass of living material (biomass or number in a unit area) present at a specific trophic
level at a particular time. Biomass measured in dry weight is more accurate.
• 10 Per Cent Law: Only 10% of the energy is transferred from a lower trophic level to the next higher one,
naturally restricting the number of levels in a grazing food chain. Other energy is released as heat (90%).
12.5 Ecological Pyramids (ELTONIAN PYRAMIDS)
Ecological pyramids visually represent the food or energy relationships across different trophic levels, where the
broad base represents producers (first trophic level) and the narrow apex represents top-level consumers.
Types of Ecological Pyramids:
1. Pyramid of Number: Represents the number of individuals at each level. Usually upright (producers
outnumber consumers). Exception: The pyramid of numbers on a single big tree feeding many insects is
inverted.
2. Pyramid of Biomass: Represents the total living mass. Usually upright. Exception: In oceans, it is
generally inverted because a small standing crop of phytoplankton supports a much larger biomass of
fishes.
3. Pyramid of Energy: Represents the energy available at each level. It is always upright and can never be
inverted because some energy is inevitably lost as heat during transfer between trophic levels.
Limitations of Ecological Pyramids:
• They do not account for species that belong to two or more trophic levels.
• They assume the existence of a simple food chain, ignoring the reality of complex food webs.
• Saprophytes (decomposers) are entirely omitted from these pyramids, despite their vital role in ecosystem
functionality.
Q4. Discuss the flow of energy in an ecosystem. Why is the number of trophic levels restricted in a grazing
food chain? (3-4 Marks) Answer:
• Energy Flow: The sun is the only source of energy for all ecosystems on Earth (except deep-sea
hydrothermal ecosystems). Plants capture only 2-10% of the photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) to
synthesize food. There is a unidirectional flow of energy from the sun to producers, and then to
consumers.
• Restriction of Trophic Levels: The amount of energy decreases at successive trophic levels. The transfer
of energy follows the 10 per cent law, meaning only 10 per cent of the energy is transferred to each trophic
level from the lower trophic level. Because so much energy is lost at each step, the number of trophic
levels in a grazing food chain is naturally restricted.
Q5. What are ecological pyramids? Why is the pyramid of energy always upright? (3 Marks) Answer:
• Ecological Pyramids: An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation expressing the food or energy
relationship between organisms at different trophic levels in terms of number, biomass, or energy. The
base represents producers, while the apex represents the top-level consumers.
• Upright Energy Pyramid: The pyramid of energy is always upright and can never be inverted. This is
because when energy flows from a particular trophic level to the next, some energy is always lost as heat
at each step, meaning energy at a lower trophic level is always more than at a higher level.