CHAPTER 6: EVOLUTION

1. Origin of the Universe & Earth

• The Big Bang Theory:

o Explains the origin of the Universe.
o Happened approx. 13.8 billion years ago (bya).
o Mechanism: A singular huge explosion → Universe expanded → Temperature cooled → Gases
(Hydrogen & Helium) formed.
o Gravitation condensed these gases to form Galaxies (e.g., Milky Way).
• Origin of Earth:
o Formed approx. 4.5 billion years ago in the Solar System.
o Primitive Earth Conditions:
▪ No Atmosphere: Early earth had no atmosphere.
▪ Gases: Volcanic eruptions released molten mass which released Methane CH4, Ammonia
NH3 Carbon dioxide CO2, and Water vapor.
▪ Reducing Atmosphere: There was no free Oxygen initially.
▪ Formation of Ozone/Water: UV rays from the sun broke water into H2 and O2. Lighter H2
escaped. O2 combined with NH3 and CH4 to form water and CO2. The Ozone layer was
formed.
▪ Formation of Oceans: As earth cooled, water vapor fell as rain, filling depressions to form
oceans.
• Origin of Life:
o Life appeared 4 billion years ago (approx. 500 million years after earth formation).

2. Theories of Origin of Life

Theory Explanation Status

Life came from outer space in the form of Still a favorite
1. Panspermia 'spores' or 'seeds'. Believed by early Greek idea for some
thinkers. astronomers.
2. Spontaneous Life came out of decaying and rotting matter like Disproven by
Generation straw and mud. Louis Pasteur.
Life comes only from pre-existing life. Proved
3. Biogenesis Accepted.
by Louis Pasteur.
Life arose from non-living organic molecules
4. Chemical Most Accepted
(RNA, Protein). Proposed by Oparin (Russia) &
Evolution Theory.
Haldane (England).
Louis Pasteur’s Experiment (Disproving Spontaneous Generation):

• Experiment: He demonstrated that in pre-sterilized flasks, life did not come from killed yeast. In flasks
open to air, new living organisms arose.
• Conclusion: Life comes only from pre-existing life.
3. Experimental Proof: Miller-Urey Experiment (1953)

• Aim: To prove the theory of Chemical Evolution.

• Scientist: S.L. Miller (American).
• Setup: Created primitive earth conditions in a laboratory flask.
• Ingredients (Strictly Memorize):
o Gases: Methane (CH4), Hydrogen (H2), Ammonia (NH3) and Water Vapor.
o Ratio: CH4 : NH3 : H2 = 2 : 1 : 2.
o Temperature: 800° C
o Energy Source: Electric discharge (electrodes) to simulate lightning.75000 V
• Result: Formation of Amino Acids (Glycine, Alanine, Aspartic Acid).
• Significance: Proved that organic molecules could form from inorganic gases on primitive earth.

4. Theories of Evolution (Biological Evolution)

A. Lamarckism (Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characters)

• Proposed by: Jean Baptiste Lamarck (French Naturalist).

• Mechanism: Evolution is driven by Use and Disuse of organs.
o Use: Organs used more become developed (elongated).
o Disuse: Organs not used degenerate.
o Inheritance: Characters acquired during a lifetime are passed to progeny.
• Example: Giraffes. Ancestors had short necks. They stretched their necks to reach leaves on tall trees
(use). This "elongated neck" was passed to the next generation.
• Disproof: August Weismann disproved this by cutting tails of mice for 22 generations; the offspring were
still born with tails.

B. Darwinism (Theory of Natural Selection)

• Proposed by: Charles Darwin (Voyage on H.M.S. Beagle) and Alfred Wallace (Malay Archipelago).
• Two Key Concepts of Darwinian Theory:
o Branching Descent.
o Natural Selection.
• Postulates (The Logic):
o Overproduction: Organisms reproduce maximally (e.g., bacteria).
o Limited Resources: Natural resources are limited.
o Struggle for Existence: Competition ensues for resources.
o Variations: No two individuals are alike. Some variations are useful/heritable.
o Survival of the Fittest: Those with useful variations adapt better, survive, and reproduce
(Reproductive Fitness).

C. Mutation Theory (Hugo de Vries)

• Basis: Worked on Evening Primrose.

• Concept: Evolution is caused by Mutation (sudden large differences), not minor variations.
• Saltation: Evolution is a single-step large mutation.
 Feature Darwinian Variations De Vries Mutations
Size Small, minute differences Large, conspicuous changes
Directional (guided by natural
Direction Directionless / random
selection)
Speed of Sudden, saltational (appear in one
Gradual, over many generations
appearance generation)
Nature Continuous variations Discontinuous variations
Provide raw material for natural
Role in evolution Mutations themselves create new species
selection
Example idea Slight beak differences in finches Sudden new plant form in Oenothera

5. Evidences for Evolution

1. Paleontological Evidence (Fossils):

• Fossils: Remains of hard parts of life forms found in sedimentary rocks.

• Significance: Study of fossils in different sedimentary layers indicates the geological period in which they
existed. It shows life forms appeared at different times.
• Fossil age is determined by relative dating, which compares the position of fossils in rock layers, and
absolute dating, which uses radioactive isotopes such as Carbon-14 to calculate the exact age.

2. Comparative Anatomy (Homologous vs. Analogous)

• Homologous Organs (Divergent Evolution):

o Definition: Same structure/origin, Different function.
o Reason: Divergent Evolution (Common ancestor → evolved for different needs).
o Examples:
▪ Animals: Forelimbs of Whale, Bat, Cheetah, and Human (All share Humerus, Radius, Ulna,
Carpals, etc.).
▪ Plants: Thorns of Bougainvillea and Tendrils of Cucurbita.
▪ Vertebrate Hearts and Brains.
• Analogous Organs (Convergent Evolution):
o Definition: Different structure/origin, Same function.
o Reason: Convergent Evolution (Different ancestors → evolved for same function/habitat).
o Examples:
▪ Animals: Wings of Butterfly and Birds; Eye of Octopus and Mammals; Flippers of
Penguins and Dolphins.
▪ Plants: Sweet Potato (Root) and Potato (Stem).

3. Biochemical Evidence:

• Similarities in proteins and genes (DNA) among diverse organisms indicate common ancestry.

4. Embryological Evidence:

• Ernst Haeckel: Proposed "Ontogeny recapitulates Phylogeny" (Embryos repeat ancestral history).
Observed vestigial gill slits in all vertebrate embryos.
• Disproven by: Karl Ernst von Baer. He noted that embryos never pass through the adult stages of other
animals.
6. Examples of Natural Selection

A. Industrial Melanism (Moths in England)

• Case 1: Before Industrialization (1850s):

o Trees were covered with white lichens.
o White-winged moths blended in (camouflaged) and survived.
o Dark-winged moths were easily spotted and eaten by predators.
o Result: White moths > Dark moths.
• Case 2: After Industrialization (1920s):
o Smoke/soot killed lichens and turned tree trunks black.
o Dark-winged (melanised) moths blended in (camouflaged) and survived.
o White-winged moths were spotted and eaten.
o Result: Dark moths > White moths.
• Conclusion: Nature selects the variety best adapted to the environment. No variant is completely wiped
out.

B. Antibiotic Resistance:

• Excessive use of antibiotics kills sensitive bacteria.

• Bacteria with accidental mutations (resistance) survive.
• They multiply fast, creating a resistant population. This is evolution by anthropogenic (human) action.

7. Adaptive Radiation

• Definition: The process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area starting from a point
and literally radiating to other areas (habitats).
• Example 1: Darwin’s Finches (Galapagos Islands):
o Common Ancestor: Seed-eating finch.
o Radiated into: Insectivorous, Vegetarian, Cactus-eating finches due to different food sources.
• Example 2: Australian Marsupials:
o A number of marsupials (Koala, Kangaroo, Wombat) evolved from an ancestral stock within
isolated Australia.

Convergent Evolution (Adaptive Radiation in Parallel):

• When more than one adaptive radiation occurs in an isolated geographical area (e.g., Placental Mammals
and Australian Marsupials), it is called Convergent Evolution.
• Example: Placental Wolf (Placental) resembles Tasmanian Wolf (Marsupial).

8. Hardy-Weinberg Principle

• Principle: In a large, random-mating population, allele frequencies are stable and constant from
generation to generation (Genetic Equilibrium).
• Equation: Sum of allelic frequencies = 1.
 p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

o p = Frequency of dominant allele (A)

o q = Frequency of recessive allele (a)
o p2 = Homozygous Dominant (AA)
o 2pq = Heterozygous (Aa)
o q2 = Homozygous Recessive (aa).
• 5 Factors Affecting Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium:
o Gene Migration (Gene Flow): Movement of population adds/removes alleles.
o Genetic Drift: Change in gene frequency by chance (random). Seen in small populations.
▪ Founder Effect: When a drifted section becomes founders of a new population.
▪ Eg. The "Lucky" Beetles
o Mutation.
o Genetic Recombination.
o Natural Selection.

9. Origin and Evolution of Man

Crucial Table for Exams. Memorize the Brain Capacity (cc).

Brain
Time
Hominid Features Capacity
Period
(cc)
Dryopithecus 15 mya Ape-like, hairy, walked like gorillas. -
Ramapithecus 15 mya Man-like, hairy, walked like gorillas. -
East African grasslands. Hunted with
Australopithecines 2 mya -
stone weapons. Ate fruit.
First human-like being (Hominid). Did 650-800
Homo habilis -
NOT eat meat. cc
Fossils found in Java. Probably ate
Homo erectus 1.5 mya 900 cc
meat.
100k-40k Near East/Central Asia. Used hides,
Neanderthal 1400 cc
yrs ago buried their dead.
Arose in Africa. Pre-historic cave art
75k-10k
Homo sapiens (18,000 yrs ago). Agriculture (10,000 yrs -
yrs ago
ago).

10. Brief Timeline of Evolution

• 2000 mya: First cellular forms of life.

• 500 mya: Invertebrates formed.
• 350 mya: Jawless fish and Fish with stout fins (Coelacanth/Lobefins) which evolved into Amphibians.
• 320 mya: Sea weeds and few plants.
• Reptiles: Dominated earth for 200 million years.
• 65 mya: Dinosaurs suddenly disappeared.
• Mammals: First mammals were Shrew-like. Viviparous and more intelligent