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2.3 Vector Algebra (pp. 11-16)

A. Arithmetic Operations of Vectors

HO: Arithmetic Operations of Vectors

B. Arithmetic Operations of Vectors and Scalars

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/24/2004 sec 2_3 [Link] 2/3

C. Multiplicative Operations of Vectors and Scalars

HO: Multiplicative Operations of Vectors and

Scalars

HO: The Unit Vector

D. Multiplicative Operations of Vectors

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/24/2004 sec 2_3 [Link] 3/3

HO: The Dot Product

HO: The Cross Product

HO: The Triple Product

E. Vectors Algebra

HO: Example: Vector Algebra

HO: Scalar, Vector, or Neither?

F. Orthogonal and Orthonormal Vector Sets

HO: Orthogonal and Orthonormal Vector Sets

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/10/2004 Arithmetic Operations of [Link] 1/4

Arithmetic Operations
of Vectors
Vector Addition

Consider two vectors, denoted A and B.

A
B

Q: Say we add these two vectors together; what is the

result?

A: The addition of two vectors results in another vector,

which we will denote as C. Therefore, we can say:

A +B =C

The magnitude and direction of C is determined by the head-

to-tail rule. B

A C=A+B

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/10/2004 Arithmetic Operations of [Link] 2/4

This is not a provable result, rather the head–to-tail rule is the

definition of vector addition. This definition is used because it
has many applications in physics.

For example, if vectors A and B represent two forces acting an

object, then vector C represents the resultant force when A
and B are simultaneously applied.

A C=A+B

Some important properties of vector addition:

1. Vector addition is commutative - A+B = B+A

C=B+A
A C=A+B A

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/10/2004 Arithmetic Operations of [Link] 3/4

2. Vector addition is associative - (X+Y) + Z = X + (Y+Z)

X
X
Y
Y

X+(Y+Z)
(X+Y)+Z Z Z

From these two properties, we can conclude that the addition of

several vectors can be executed in any order:

Z Y

Z
Y
X
Z+Y+X = X+Y+Z

Vector Subtraction

First, we define the negative of a vector to be a vector with

equal magnitude but opposite direction.

A -A

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/10/2004 Arithmetic Operations of [Link] 4/4

Note that A + (-A) = 0 A

-A

We can therefore consider the addition of a negative vector as

a subtraction:
A – A=0

More generally, we can write:

A + (-B) = A – B

E.G.,
A
A-B -B

A
B -B B

A+B

Q: Is A-B = B-A ?

A: What do you think ?

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/10/2004 Multiplicative Operations of Vectors and [Link] 1/4

Multiplicative Operations
of Vectors and Scalars
Consider a scalar quantity a and a vector quantity B. We
express the multiplication of these two values as:

aB = C

In other words, the product of a scalar and a vector is a vector!

Q: OK, but what is vector C ? What is the

meaning of a B ?

A: The resulting vector C has a magnitude that is

equal to a times the magnitude of B. In other
words:

C =a B

However, the direction of vector C is exactly

that of B.

Therefore multiplying a vector by a scalar changes the

magnitude of the vector, but not its direction.

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/10/2004 Multiplicative Operations of Vectors and [Link] 2/4

For example:

B 0.5 B 2.0 B

Note that B + B = 2.0 B !

2.0 B

B+B

1. More generally, we find that scalar-vector multiplication is

distributive:
a B + b B = (a +b) B

2.5 B
E.G.,
2.0 B 0.5 B

2. And also distributive as:

a B + a C = a ( B +C )

B
E.G., C
B C
B+C

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/10/2004 Multiplicative Operations of Vectors and [Link] 3/4

2B

2C
2(B+C)

3. Scalar-Vector multiplication is also commutative:

a B = B a

4. Multiplication of a vector by a negative scalar is

interpreted as:
-a B = a (-B)

E.G.,
B -B -2.0B = 2.0(-B)

5. Division of a vector by a scalar is the same as multiplying

the vector by the inverse of the scalar:

B ⎛1⎞
=⎜ ⎟ B
a ⎝a ⎠

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/10/2004 Multiplicative Operations of Vectors and [Link] 4/4

Scalar-Vector multiplication is likewise used in many physical

applications. For example, say you start in Lawrence and head
west at 70 mph for exactly 3.3 hours.

Note your velocity has both direction (west) and magnitude (70
mph) – it’s a vector! Lets denote it as V = 70 mph west.

Likewise, your travel time is a scalar; lets denote it as t = 3.3 h.

Now, lets multiply the two together (i.e., t V). The magnitude
of the resulting vector is 70(3.3) = 231 miles. The direction of
the resulting vector is of course unchanged: west.

A vector describing a distance and a direction—a directed

distance! We find that t V = R , where R identifies your
location after 3.3 hours!

You’re in
Hays, R=tV
Kansas ! = 231 miles west

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/12/2004 The Unit [Link] 1/2

The Unit Vector

Now that we understand multiplication and division of a vector
by a scalar, we can discuss a very important concept: the unit
vector.

Lets begin with vector A. Say we divide this vector by its

magnitude (a scalar value). We create a new vector, which we
will denote as âA :

A
âA =
A

Q: How is vector âA related to vector A ?

A: Since we divided A by a scalar value, the vector

âA has the same direction as vector A.

But, the magnitude of âA is:

A
âA = =1
A

The vector âA has a magnitude equal to one ! We call such a

vector a unit vector.

Jim Stiles The University of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/12/2004 The Unit [Link] 2/2

A unit vector is essentially a description of direction only, as

its magnitude is always unit valued (i.e., equal to one).
Therefore:

* A is a scalar value that describes the magnitude of

vector A.

* âA is a vector that describes the direction of A.

Rearranging the formula on the previous page, we can express

vector A as:

A= A ˆ
aA

Thus, any vector can be written as the product of its magnitude

and its unit vector !
â A= A ˆ aA
A

Q: What, approximately, is the magnitude of vector A

shown above?

A: A =

Jim Stiles The University of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/18/2004 The Dot [Link] 1/5

The Dot Product

The dot product of two vectors, A and B, is denoted as AiB .

The dot product of two vectors is defined as:

AiB = A B cos θAB

where the angle θAB is the angle formed between the vectors A
and B.

B
A
θAB 0 ≤ θAB ≤ π

IMPORTANT NOTE: The dot product is an operation involving

two vectors, but the result is a scalar !! E.G.,:

AiB = c

The dot product is also called the scalar product of two

vectors.

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/18/2004 The Dot [Link] 2/5

Q1: So, what would the dot product of three

vectors be? I.E.,:
?
AiBiC = ??

A:

Note also that the dot product is commutative, i.e.,:

AiΒ = BiA

Some more fun facts about the dot product include:

1. The dot product of a vector with itself is equal to the

magnitude of the vector squared.

2
ΑiΑ = Α Α cos 0° = Α

Therefore:
Α = ΑiΑ

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/18/2004 The Dot [Link] 3/5

2. If ΑiB = 0 (and Α ≠ 0, B ≠ 0 ), then it must be true that:

cos θAB = 0 ⇒ θAB = 90

Thus, if ΑiB = 0 , the two vectors are orthogonal

(perpendicular).

ΑiB = 0
θAB = 90

3. If ΑiB = Α B , then it must be true that:

cos θAB = 1 ⇒ θAB = 0

Thus, vectors A and B must have the same direction. They are
said to be collinear (parallel).

B ΑiB = Α B cos 0
= Α B

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/18/2004 The Dot [Link] 4/5

4. If ΑiB = − Α B , then it must be true that:

cos θAB = −1 ⇒ θAB = 180°

Thus, vectors A and B point in opposite directions; they are said

to be anti-parallel.

B A

ΑiB = Α B cos 180°

=−Α B

5. The dot product is distributive with addition, such that:

A ⋅ (B + C ) = A ⋅ B + A ⋅ C

For example, we can write:

(A + B) ⋅ (A + C ) = (A + B) ⋅ A + (A + B ) ⋅ C (distributive)
= A ⋅ (A + B) + C ⋅ (A + B) (commutative)
= A ⋅A + A ⋅B + C ⋅A + C ⋅B (distributive)
2
= A + A ⋅B + C ⋅A + C ⋅B

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/18/2004 The Dot [Link] 5/5

One application of the dot product is the determination of work.

Say an object moves a distance d, directly from point Pa to point
Pb , by applying a constant force F.

Q: How much work has been done?

First, we can specify the direct path from point Pa to point Pb

with a directed distance:
Pb
d

Rab

Pa

The work done is simply the dot product of the applied force
vector and the directed distance!

F
Pb

Rab
θFR

Pa

W = F ⋅ Rab
A: = F Rab cos θFR
= d F cos θFR

The value F cos θFR is said to be the scalar component of force

F in the direction of directed distance Rab

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/18/2004 The Cross [Link] 1/4

The Cross Product

The cross product of two vectors, A and B, is denoted as
A×B.

The cross product of two vectors is defined as:

A × B = aˆn A B sinθAB

Just as with the dot product, the angle θ AB is the angle between
the vectors A and B. The unit vector aˆn is orthogonal to both
A and B (i.e., aˆn ⋅ A = 0 and aˆn ⋅ B = 0 ).

θAB
A

0 ≤ θAB ≤ π
AxB

IMPORTANT NOTE: The cross product is an operation

involving two vectors, and the result is also a vector. E.G.,:

A×B = C

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/18/2004 The Cross [Link] 2/4

The magnitude of vector AxB is therefore:

A × B = A B sinθ AB

Whereas the direction of vector AxB is described by unit

vector aˆn .

Problem! There are two unit vectors that satisfy the

equations aˆn ⋅ A = 0 and aˆn ⋅ B = 0 !! These two vectors are anti-
parallel.

B A ⋅ aˆn 1 = A ⋅ aˆn 2 = 0

aˆn 2
B ⋅ aˆn 1 = B ⋅ aˆn 2 = 0
A

aˆn 1 = −aˆn 2
aˆn 1
Q: Which unit vector is correct?

A: Use the right-hand rule (See figure 2-9)!!

From: [Link]/~watson/phys345/
class/[Link]

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/18/2004 The Cross [Link] 3/4

Some fun facts about the cross product !

1. If θ AB = 90D (i.e., orthogonal), then:

A
A × B = aˆn A B sin90D
= aˆn A B
B

2. If θ AB = 0D (i.e., parallel), then:

A
A × B = aˆn A B sin0D
=0 B

Note that AxB =0 also if θ AB = 180D

A B

3. The cross product is not commutative ! In other

words, A × B ≠ B × A . Instead:

Why, when
B evaluating the
BxA cross product of
two vectors, the
A order is dog-
gone important !

AxB A × B = − (B × A)

4. The negative of the cross product is:

− (A × B) = − A × B = A × (− B)

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/18/2004 The Cross [Link] 4/4

5. The cross product is also not associative:

( A × B) × C ≠ A × ( B × C )

Therefore, AxBxC has ambiguous meaning !

6. But, the cross product is distributive, in that:

A × ( B + C ) = ( A × B) + ( A × C )
and also,

( B + C ) × A = ( B × A) + ( C × A)

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/12/2004 The Triple Product .doc 1/3

The Triple Product

The triple product is not a “new” operation, as it is simply a
combination of the dot and cross products.

The triple product of vectors A, B, and C is denoted as:

A ⋅ BxC

Q: Yikes! Does this mean:

( A ⋅ B ) xC
or

A ⋅ ( BxC )

A: The answer is easy ! Only one of these two

interpretations makes sense:

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/12/2004 The Triple Product .doc 2/3

In the first case, A ⋅ B is a scalar value, sayd = A ⋅ B . Therefore

we can write the first equation as:

(A ⋅ B ) x C = d x C

But, this makes no sense! The cross product of a scalar and a

vector has no meaning.

In the second interpretation, the cross product B x C is a

vector, say BxC = D . Therefore, we can write the second
equation as:

A ⋅ ( BxC ) = A ⋅ D

Not only does this make sense, but the result is a scalar !

The triple product A ⋅ BxC results in a scalar value.

The Cyclic Property

It can be shown that the triple product of vectors A, B, and C

can be evaluated in three ways:

A ⋅ BxC = C ⋅ AxB = B ⋅ CxA

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/12/2004 The Triple Product .doc 3/3

But, it is important to note that this does not mean that order
is unimportant! For example:

A ⋅ BxC ≠ A ⋅ CxB

A ⋅ BxC ≠ C ⋅ BxA

A ⋅ BxC ≠ B ⋅ AxC

The cyclical rule means that the triple product is invariant to

shifts (i.e., rotations) in the order of the vectors.

There are six ways to arrange three vectors. Therefore, we

can group the triple product of three vectors into two groups of
three products:
A ⋅ BxC = C ⋅ AxB = B ⋅ CxA

B ⋅ AxC = C ⋅ BxA = A ⋅ CxB

but, A ⋅ BxC = − ( B ⋅ AxC )

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/24/2004 Example_Vector [Link] 1/3

Example: Vector Algebra

Consider the scalar expression:

ac + bc + bd + ad

We can manipulate and simply this expression using the rules

of scalar algebra:

ac + bc + bd + ad = ac + ad + bc + bd (commutative)
= ( ac + ad ) + (bc + bd ) (associative)
= a (c + d ) + b (c + d ) (distributive)
= ( a + b ) (c + d ) (distributive)

We can likewise perform a similar analysis on vector

expressions! Consider now the expression:

(A + B ) ⋅ C × A

We can show that this is actually a very familiar and basic

vector operation!

(A + B ) ⋅ C × A = C ⋅ A × (A + B ) (Triple product identity)

= C ⋅ (A × A + A × B ) (Cross Product Distibutive)
= C ⋅A×B (Since A × A = 0)
= A⋅B × C (Triple product identity)

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/24/2004 Example_Vector [Link] 2/3

Or, for example, if we consider:

( A + B ) ⋅ (B + 2A )
we find:

= ( A + B ) ⋅ ( B + 2A )
= A ⋅ ( B + 2A ) + B ⋅ ( B + 2A ) (dot product distributive)
= A ⋅ B + A ⋅ 2A + B ⋅ B + B ⋅ 2A (dot product distributive)
= A ⋅ B + 2 A ⋅ A + B ⋅ B + 2 B ⋅ A (scalar multiply commutative)
2 2 2
= A ⋅ B + 2 A + B + 2B ⋅ A (C ⋅ C = C identity)
2 2
= A ⋅B + 2 A + B + 2A ⋅B (dot product communitive)
2 2
= 2 A + 2A ⋅B + A ⋅B + B (vector addition commutative)
2
= 2 A + (2 + 1 ) A ⋅ B + B
2
(scalar multiply distributive)
2 2
= A + 3A ⋅ B + B (2+1=3)

Keep in mind one very important

point when doing vector algebra—
the expression can never change
type (e.g., from vector to scalar)!

In other words, if the expression

initially results in a vector (or
scalar), then after each
manipulation, the result must also
be a vector (or scalar).

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/24/2004 Example_Vector [Link] 3/3

For example, we find that the following expression cannot

possibly be true!

A × B + (B ⋅ C ) A = B ⋅ ( A × C ) + ( A + B ) ⋅ C

Q: Do you see why?

A: ______________________________________

Likewise, be careful not to create

expressions that have no
mathematical meaning whatsoever!

Examples include:

(A ⋅ B ) × C

A + (B ⋅ C )

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/12/2004 Scalar Vector or [Link] 1/1

Scalar, Vector, or
Neither?
Let’s test our vector algebraic skills!
Can you evaluate the following
expressions, and determine whether
the result is a scalar (S), a vector
(V), or neither (N) ??

1. (A ⋅ B ) C _______

2. A + (B ⋅ C ) _______

3. A ⋅ (B ⋅ C ) _______

4. A ( BxC ) _______

5. B (A ⋅ C ) − C (A ⋅ B ) _______

6. A ⋅ ( BxC ) + C ⋅ ( A + B ) _______

7. A ⋅ BxC ⋅ D _______

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/24/2004 Orthogonal and Orthonormal Vector [Link] 1/4

Orthogonal and
Orthonormal Vector Sets
We often specify or relate a set of scalar values (e.g., x, y, z)
using a set of scalar equations. For example, we might say:

x =y and z = x +2

From which we can conclude a third expression:

z = y +2

Say that we now add a new constraint to the first two:

x +y =2

We can now specifically conclude that:

x =1 y =1 z =3

Note we can likewise use vector equations to specify or relate a

set of vectors (e.g., A, B, C ).

For example, consider a set of three vectors that are oriented

such that they are mutually orthogonal !

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/24/2004 Orthogonal and Orthonormal Vector [Link] 2/4

In other words, each vector is perpendicular to each of the

other two:
A

Note that we can describe this orthogonal relationship

mathematically using three simple equations:

Α⋅B = 0
Α⋅C = 0
B⋅C = 0

We can therefore define an orthogonal set of vectors using the

dot product:

Three (non-zero) vectors A, B and C form an

orthogonal set iff they satisfy A ⋅ B = B ⋅ C = C ⋅ A = 0

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/24/2004 Orthogonal and Orthonormal Vector [Link] 3/4

Note that there are an infinite number of mutually

orthogonal vector sets that can be formed !

E.G:

Q: Can four or more

vectors form an mutually
orthogonal set ?

A: Nope, not in a three-

dimensional space! Three is
the limit.

Consider now a mutually orthogonal set of unit vectors. Such a

set can be defined as three vectors that satisfy these six
equations:

A ⋅B = B ⋅ C = C ⋅A = 0 (mutually orthognal)

A ⋅A = B ⋅B = C ⋅ C = 1 (unit magnitudes)

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

8/24/2004 Orthogonal and Orthonormal Vector [Link] 4/4

A set of vectors that satisfy these equations are said to form

an orthonormal set of vectors ! Therefore, an orthonormal set
consists of unit vectors where:

aˆA ⋅ aˆB = aˆB ⋅ aˆC = aˆC ⋅ aˆA = 0

Again, there are an infinite number of orthonormal vector sets,

but each set consists of only three vectors.

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS