Chapter 2

Functions and
Graphs
 2.1. Functions

Graphing an Equation
▪ To sketch the graph an equation in x and y, we need to find
ordered pairs that solve the equation and plot the ordered
pairs on a grid. This process is called point-by-point
plotting.
▪ For example, let’s plot the graph of the equation
y = x2 − 2

2
 Graphing an Equation:
Making a Table of Ordered Pairs

▪ Make a table of ordered pairs x y

that satisfy the equation –3 (–3)2+2 = 11
y = x2 − 2 –2 (–2)2+2 = 6
–1 (–1)2+2 = 6
0 (0)2+2 = 2
1 (1)2+2 = 3
2 (2)2+2 = 6

3
 Functions

▪ The previous graph is the graph of a function. The idea of a

function is this: a correspondence between two sets D and R
such that to each element of the first set, D, there corresponds
one and only one element of the second set, R.
▪ The first set is called the domain, and the set of corresponding
elements in the second set is called the range.
▪ For example, the cost of a pizza (C) is related to the size of the
pizza. A 10 inch diameter pizza costs $9.00, while a 16 inch
diameter pizza costs $12.00.

4
 Function Definition

▪ You can visualize a function by the following diagram which shows

a correspondence between two sets: D, the domain of the function,
gives the diameter of pizzas, and R, the range of the function gives
the cost of the pizza.

10 9.00
12 10.00
16
12.00

domain D
range R

5
Functions Specified by Equations

▪ If in an equation in two variables, we get exactly one output

(value for the dependent variable) for each input (value for the
independent variable), then the equation specifies a function.
The graph of such a function is just the graph of the specifying
equation.

▪ If we get more than one output for a given input, the equation
does not specify a function.

6
Functions Specified by Equations

▪ Consider the equation that was graphed on a previous slide

y = x2 − 2
Input:
–2 x = –2
(–2,2) is an Process:
ordered pair of the y = x2 − 2 square (–2),
function. then subtract 2
Output:
2 result is 2

7
Vertical Line Test for a Function

If you have the graph of an equation, there is an easy way to

determine if it is the graph of an function. It is called the vertical
line test which states that:
An equation specifies a function if each vertical line in the
coordinate system passes through at most one point on the graph of
the equation.
If any vertical line passes through two or more points on the graph
of an equation, then the equation does not specify a function.

8
Vertical Line Test for a Function
(continued)

9
 Function Notation

▪ The following notation is used to describe functions. The

variable y will now be called f (x).

▪ This is read as “ f of x” and simply means the y coordinate

of the function corresponding to a given x value.
Our previous equation
y = x −2
2

can now be expressed as

f ( x) = x 2 − 2

10
 Function Evaluation

▪ Consider our function f ( x) = x 2 − 2

▪ What does f (–3) mean?
Replace x with the value –3 and evaluate the expression
f (−3) = (−3)2 + 2
▪ The result is 11 . This means that the point (–3,11) is on
the graph of the function.

11
 Domain of a Function

▪ Consider
f ( x) = 3x − 2
f (0) = ?
f (0) = 3(0) − 2 = −2
which is not a real number.
▪ Question: for what values of x is the function defined?

12
 Domain of a Function

▪ Answer: f ( x) = 3x − 2
is defined only when the radicand (3x – 2) is equal to or greater
than zero. This implies that
2
x
3
 2 2
 x x   , [ , )
 3 3
Therefore, the domain of our function is the set of real numbers
that are greater than or equal to 2/3.

13
 Domain of a Function
(continued)

▪ Example: Find the domain of the function

▪ Answer:
1
f ( x) = x−4
2

x x  8 , [8, )

14
 Domain of a Function:
Another Example

▪ Find the domain of

1
f ( x) =
3x − 5
▪ In this case, the function is defined for all values of x except
where the denominator of the fraction is zero. This means all
real numbers x except 5/3.

15
 Mathematical Modeling

The price-demand function for a company is given by

p( x) = 1000 − 5 x, 0  x  100

where x represents the number of items and P(x) represents the

price of the item. Determine the revenue function and find the
revenue generated if 50 items are sold.

16
 Solution

Revenue = Price*Quantity, so
R(x)= p(x)*x = (1000 – 5x)*x
When 50 items are sold, x = 50, so we will evaluate the
revenue function at x = 50:
R(50) = (1000 – 5*50)*50 = 37,500
The domain of the function has already been specified.
We are told that 0 ≤ x ≤ 100

17
 Break-Even and Profit-Loss
Analysis

▪ Any manufacturing company has costs C and revenues R.

▪ The company will have a loss if R < C, will break even
if R = C, and will have a profit if R > C.
▪ Costs include fixed costs such as plant overhead, etc. and
variable costs, which are dependent on the number of
items produced.
C = a + bx
(x is the number of items produced)

18
Break-Even and Profit-Loss
Analysis

19
Break-Even and Profit-Loss Analysis
(continued)

▪ Price-demand functions, usually determined by financial

departments, play an important role in profit-loss analysis.
p = m – nx
(x is the number of items than can be sold at $p per item.)
▪ The revenue function is
R = (number of items sold) * (price per item)
= xp = x(m – nx)
▪ The profit function is
P = R – C = x(m – nx) – (a + bx)

20
 Example of Profit-Loss Analysis

A company manufactures notebook computers. Its marketing

research department has determined that the data is modeled by the
price-demand function:
p(x) = 2,000 – 60x, when 1 < x < 25, (x is in thousands).
What is the company’s revenue function and what is its domain?

21
 Answer to Revenue Problem

Since Revenue = Price * Quantity,

R(x) = x.p(x) = x (2000 – 60x) = 2000x – 60x2
The domain of this function is the same as the domain of the
price-demand function, which is 1 ≤ x ≤ 25 (in thousands.)

22
 Profit Problem

The financial department for the company in the preceding

problem has established the following cost function for
producing and selling x thousand notebook computers:
C(x) = 4,000 + 500x (x is in thousand dollars).
Write a profit function for producing and selling x thousand
notebook computers, and indicate the domain of this function.

23
 Answer to Profit Problem

Since Profit = Revenue – Cost, and our revenue function from the
preceding problem was R(x) = 2000x – 60x2,
P(x) = R(x) – C(x) = 2000x – 60x2 – (4000 + 500x)
= –60x2 + 1500x – 4000.
The domain of this function is the same as the domain of the
original price-demand function, 1< x < 25 (in thousands.)

24
2.2. Elementary Functions
Graphs and Transformations

25
Graphs and Transformations

26
Graphs and Transformations

27
 Vertical Shift

▪ The graph of y = f(x) + k can be obtained from the graph

of y = f(x) by vertically translating (shifting) the graph of
the latter upward k units if k is positive and downward |k|
units if k is negative.
▪ Graph y = |x|, y = |x| + 4, and y = |x| – 5.

28
Vertical Shift

29
 Horizontal Shift

▪ The graph of y = f(x + h) can be obtained from the graph

of y = f(x) by horizontally translating (shifting) the graph
of the latter h units to the left if h is positive and |h| units to
the right if h is negative.

▪ Graph y = |x|, y = |x + 4|, and y = |x – 5|.

30
Horizontal Shift

31
 Reflection, Stretches and Shrinks

▪ The graph of y = Af(x) can be obtained from the graph of

y = f(x) by multiplying each ordinate value of the latter by A.
▪ If A > 1, the result is a vertical stretch of the graph of y = f(x).
▪ If 0 < A < 1, the result is a vertical shrink of the graph of y =
f(x).
▪ If A = –1, the result is a reflection in the x axis.
▪ Graph y = |x|, y = 2|x|, y = 0.5|x|, and y = –2|x|.

32
Reflection, Stretches and Shrinks

33
Reflection, Stretches and Shrinks

34
 2.3. Quadratic Functions

If a, b, c are real numbers with a not equal to zero, then

the function

f ( x) = ax 2 + bx + c
is a quadratic function and its graph is a parabola.

35
 Vertex Form of the
Quadratic Function

It is convenient to convert the general form of a quadratic equation

f ( x) = ax 2 + bx + c
to what is known as the vertex form:

f ( x ) = a ( x − h) + k
2

36
 Completing the Square to Find
the Vertex of a Quadratic Function

The example below illustrates the procedure:

Consider f ( x) = −3x 2 + 6 x − 1
Complete the square to find the vertex.

Solution:
Factor the coefficient of x2 out of the first two terms:
f (x) = –3(x2 – 2x) –1

37
 Completing the square
(continued)

▪ Add 1 to complete the square inside the parentheses. Because

of the –3 outside the parentheses, we have actually added –3,
so we must add +3 to the outside.
f (x) = –3(x2 – 2x +1) –1+3
f (x) = –3(x – 1)2 + 2

▪ The vertex is (1, 2)

▪ The quadratic function opens down since the coefficient of the
x2 term is –3, which is negative.

38
Intercepts of a Quadratic Function

▪ Find the x and y intercepts of

f (x) = –3x2 + 6x –1
▪ x intercepts: Set f (x) = 0: –3x2 + 6x –1 = 0
▪ Use the quadratic formula:

−b  b2 − 4ac
x= =
2a

39
Intercepts of a Quadratic Function

▪ y intercept: Let x = 0. If x = 0, then y = –1, so (0, –1)

is the y intercept.
▪ f (0) = –3(0)2 + 6(0) –1

40
 Generalization

For f ( x ) = a ( x − h) + k
2

▪ If a  0, then the graph of f is a parabola.

• If a > 0, the graph opens upward.
• If a < 0, the graph opens downward. Vertex is (h , k)
▪ Axis of symmetry: x = h
▪ f (h) = k is the minimum if a > 0, otherwise the maximum
▪ Domain = set of all real numbers
▪ Range:  y y  k  if a < 0. If a > 0, the range is  y y  k 

41
Generalization

42
 Break-Even Analysis

The financial department of a company that produces digital

cameras has the revenue and cost functions for x million
cameras are as follows:
R(x) = x(94.8 – 5x)
C(x) = 156 + 19.7x. Both have domain 1 < x < 15
Break-even points are the production levels at which
R(x) = C(x). Find the break-even points algebraically to the
nearest thousand cameras.

43
 Solution to Break-Even Problem

Set R(x) equal to C(x):

x(94.8 – 5x) = 156 + 19.7x
−75.1  75.12 − 4(−6)(−156)
–5x2 + 75.1x – 156 = 0 x=
2(−5)

x = 2.490 or 12.530
=>The company breaks even at x = 2.490 and 12.530 million cameras.

44
 Solution to Break-Even Problem
(continued)

If we graph the cost and revenue functions on a graphing utility, we

obtain the following graphs, showing the two intersection points:

45
2.4. Polynomial and Rational Functions

A polynomial function is a function that can be written in

the form
an x n + an −1 x n −1 +  + a1 x + a0
for n a nonnegative integer, called the degree of the
polynomial. The domain of a polynomial function is the
set of all real numbers.
A polynomial of degree 0 is a constant. A polynomial of
degree 1 is a linear function. A polynomial of degree 2 is a
quadratic function.

46
 Shapes of Polynomials

▪ A polynomial is called odd if it only contains odd powers

of x
▪ It is called even if it only contains even powers of x
Let’s look at the shapes of some even and odd polynomials
Look for some of the following properties:
• Symmetry
• Number of x axis intercepts
• Number of local maxima/minima
• What happens as x goes to +∞ or -∞?

47
Graphs of Polynomials

48
Graphs of Polynomials

49
Graphs of Polynomials

50
 Observations
Odd Polynomials

▪ For an odd polynomial,

• the graph is symmetric about the origin
• the graphs starts negative, ends positive, or vice versa,
depending on whether the leading coefficient is positive or
negative
• either way, a polynomial of degree n crosses the x axis at
least once, at most n times.

51
 Observations
Even Polynomials

▪ For an even polynomial,

• the graph is symmetric about the y axis
• the graphs starts negative, ends negative, or starts and
ends positive, depending on whether the leading
coefficient is positive or negative
• either way, a polynomial of degree n crosses the x axis
at most n times. It may or may not cross at all.

52
 Characteristics of Polynomials

▪ Graphs of polynomials are continuous. One can sketch the

graph without lifting up the pencil.
▪ Graphs of polynomials have no sharp corners.
▪ Graphs of polynomials usually have turning points, which is
a point that separates an increasing portion of the graph from a
decreasing portion.
▪ A polynomial of degree n can have at most n linear factors.
Therefore, the graph of a polynomial function of positive
degree n can intersect the x axis at most n times.
▪ A polynomial of degree n may intersect the x axis fewer than n
times.
53
 Rational Functions

▪ A rational function f(x) is a quotient of two polynomials,

n(x) and d(x), for all x such that d(x) is not equal to zero.
▪ Example: Let n(x) = x + 5 and d(x) = x – 2, then
x+5
f ( x) =
x−2
is a rational function whose domain is all real values of x with
the exception of 2 (Why?)

54
 Vertical Asymptotes of
Rational Functions

x values at which the function is undefined represent vertical

asymptotes to the graph of the function. A vertical asymptote
is a line of the form x = k which the graph of the function
approaches but does not cross. In the figure below, which is
the graph of
x+5
f ( x) =
x−2
the line x = 2 is a vertical asymptote.

55
 Horizontal Asymptotes of
Rational Functions

A horizontal asymptote of a function is a line of the form y = k

which the graph of the function approaches as x approaches 

For example, in the

graph of
x+5
x−2
the line y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote.

56
 Generalizations about
Asymptotes of Rational Functions

Vertical Asymptotes:

▪ Case1: Suppose n(x) and d(x) have no real zero in

common. The line x = c is a vertical asymptote if d(c) = 0.
▪ Case 2: If n(x) and d(x) have one or more real zeros in
common, cancel the linear factors. Then apply Case 1.

57
 Generalizations about
Asymptotes of Rational Functions

Horizontal Asymptotes:

▪ Case1: If degree of n(x) < degree of d(x) then y = 0 is

the horizontal asymptote.
▪ Case 2: If degree of n(x) = degree of d(x) then y = a/b is
the horizontal asymptote, where a is the leading
coefficient of n(x) and b is the leading coefficient of
d(x).
▪ Case 3: If degree of n(x) > degree of d(x) there is no
horizontal asymptote.

58
 Bounded

▪ A function f is bounded if the entire graph of f lies

between two horizontal lines.
▪ The only polynomials that are bounded are the constant
functions, but there are many rational functions that are
bounded.

59
Application of Rational Functions

A company that manufactures computers has established that,

on the average, a new employee can assemble N(t) components
per day after t days of on-the-job training, as given by

50t
N (t ) = , t0
t+4
Sketch a graph of N, 0 ≤ t ≤ 100, including any vertical or
horizontal asymptotes. What does N(t) approach as t increases
without bound?

60
 Application of Rational Functions

Vertical asymptote: None for t ≥ 0.

50t 50
Horizontal asymptote: N (t ) = =
t + 4 1+ 4
t
N(t) approaches 50 (the leading coefficient of 50t divided by
the leading coefficient of (t + 4) as t increases without
bound. So y = 50 is a horizontal asymptote.

61
 Application of Rational Functions

50t
N (t ) =
t+4
N(t) approaches 50 as t
increases without bound. It
appears that 50 components per
day would be the upper limit
that an employee would be
expected to assemble.

62
 2.5. Exponential Function

▪ The equation
f ( x) = a x , a 1
defines an exponential function for each different constant a,
called the base.
▪ The domain of f is the set of all real numbers, while the
range of f is the set of all positive real numbers.

63
 Example

Here is a problem related to exponential functions:

▪ Suppose you received a penny on the first day of December,
two pennies on the second day of December, four pennies on
the third day, eight pennies on the fourth day and so on. How
many pennies would you receive on December 31 if this
pattern continues?
▪ Would you rather take this amount of money or receive a lump
sum payment of $10,000,000?

64
 Solution

Complete the table:

Day No. pennies
1 1
2 2 2^1
3 4 2^2
4 8 2^3
5 16 ...
6 32
7 64

65
 Solution
(continued)

▪ Now, if this pattern continued, how many pennies would

you have on Dec. 31?
▪ Your answer should be 230 (two raised to the thirtieth
power). The exponent on two is one less than the day of
the month. See the preceding slide.
▪ What is 230?
▪ 1,073,741,824 pennies!!! Move the decimal point two
places to the left to find the amount in dollars. You should
get: $10,737,418.24

66
 Solution
(continued)

▪ The obvious answer to the question is to take the number of

pennies on December 31 and not a lump sum payment of
$10,000,000
(although I would not mind having either amount!)
▪ This example shows how an exponential function grows
extremely rapidly. In this case, the exponential function
f ( x) = 2 x
is used to model this problem.

67
Graph Exponential Function

68
 Properties of Exponential
Functions

For a and b positive, a  1, b  1, and x and y real,

1. Exponent laws:
(a ) ( )
y x
a a =a
x y x+ y x
=a xy
ab = a x x
b

ax x− y a
x
ax
= a   = x
ay b b

2. ax = ay if and only if x = y
3. For x  0, ax = bx if and only if a = b.

69
 Base e Exponential Functions

▪ Of all the possible bases a we can use for the exponential

function y = ax, probably the most useful one is the
exponential function with base e.
▪ The base e is an irrational number, and, like π, cannot be
represented exactly by any finite decimal fraction.
▪ However, e can be approximated as closely as we like by
evaluating the expression
x
 1
1 + 
 x

70
Exponential Function With Base e

x
 1 The table to the left illustrates
x 1 +  what happens to the expression
 x
x
1 2  1
1 + 
 x
10 2.59374246 as x gets increasingly larger. As
100 2.704813829 we can see from the table, the
values approach a number whose
1000 2.716923932 approximation is 2.718
10000 2.718145927
1000000 2.718280469

71
Exponential Function With Base e

y = ex and y = e–x
Domain: (–∞, ∞)
Range: (0, ∞)

72
 Relative Growth Rates

▪ Functions of the form y = cekt, where c and k are constants

and the independent variable t represents time, are often
used to model population growth and radioactive decay.
▪ If t = 0, then y = c. So, the constant c represents the initial
population (or initial amount.)
▪ The constant k is called the relative growth rate. If the
relative growth rate is k = 0.02, then at any time t, the
population is growing at a rate of 0.02y persons (2% of the
population) per year.
▪ We say that population is growing continuously at
relative growth rate k to mean that the population y is
given by the model y = cekt.

73
 Growth and Decay Applications:
Atmospheric Pressure

▪ The atmospheric pressure p • Find the pressure at sea

decreases with increasing level (h = 0)
height. The pressure is related
to the number of kilometers h • Find the pressure at a
above the sea level by the height of 7 kilometers.
formula:
P(h) = 760e−0.145h

74
 Solution

• Find the pressure at sea level (h = 0)

P(0) = 760e0 = 760
• Find the pressure at a height of 7 kilometers
−0.145(7)
P(7) = 760e = 275.43

75
 Depreciation of a Machine

A machine is initially worth ▪ Solution:

V0 dollars but loses 10% of its
V (t ) = V0 (0.9t )
value each year. Its value after
t years is given by the formula V (8) = 30000(0.98 ) = $12,914
V (t ) = V0 (0.9t )
Find the value after 8 years of
a machine whose initial value
is $30,000.

76
 Compound Interest

nt
 r
▪ The compound interest formula is A = P 1 + 
 n
▪ Here, A is the future value of the investment, P is the
initial amount (principal or future value), r is the annual
interest rate as a decimal, n represents the number of
compounding periods per year, and t is the number of
years

77
 Compound Interest Problem

▪ Find the amount to which $1500 will grow if deposited in

a bank at 5.75% interest compounded quarterly for 5 years.

▪ Solution: Use the compound interest formula:

nt
 r
A = P 1 + 
 n
Substitute P = 1500, r = 0.0575, n = 4 and t = 5 to obtain
(4)(5)
 0.0575 
A = 1500 1 +  =$1995.55
 4 

78