Chapter-1-Review of Atomic Theory of Mater
❑ Chapter objectives
• To review atomic theory
• To understand quantization of electron and quantum numbers
• To understand Schrödinger equation
• To review concepts of atomic bonding
• To understand energy band diagram of materials
A Review of Atomic models
• Atomic theory is related to chemistry which is the science of matter.
• Matter is made up of things called atom, elements and molecules.
• Atom: is the smallest particle of any element.
• Element is a substance made up of only one type of atom, each with the same
number of protons.
• Molecule: The smallest particle of a substance capable of stable independent
existence.
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Cont..
• Molecules are made up of one or more atoms.
• The atoms can be the same (an oxygen molecule has two oxygen atoms) or
different (a water molecule has two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom).
• Example
• Sugar Carbon
Hydrogen
oxygen
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Atomic Structure
• Atoms consist of a tiny, positively charged nucleus surrounded by a cloud of
negatively charged electrons.
• Although typically the nucleus is less than one ten-thousandth the size of the
atom, the nucleus contains more than 99.9% of the atom’s mass.
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Cont..
• Atom consists of:- Positively charged particle called proton.
• Negatively charged particle called electron.
• Neutrally charged particle called neutron.
• The difference between various types of elements is due to the different
number and arrangement of these particles within their atoms.
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Cont..
• The electrons revolve around the nucleus in different energy levels.
• Under normal state atom caries an equal number of protons and electrons.
• The outer most orbit electrons are called as a valance electron or free electrons.
• The inner orbit electrons are called core electron.
• Number of electron = 2n^2
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The Electron
• An electron is a negatively charged particles having negligible mass.
• Some of the important properties of an electron are
• The ratio e/m of electron is 1.77X10^11 c/kg
• This means mass of an electron is very small as compared to its charge
• Due to this property of an electron that it is very mobile and is greatly influenced by electric
or magnetic fields.
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Atomic bonding
• It studies how valance electrons are shared among the atoms.
• There are two types of bonding
• Ionic bonding: it is also called electrovalent bonding.
• introduced by Kossel in 1916.
• It is a complete transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another atom.
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Example
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Properties of ionic bonding
• It occurs between metals and non-metals
• The compounds are solids.
• It has very high melting points
• High boiling points
• A crystal lattice structure
• Solids break easily into sheets
• Solids do not conduct electricity and are good insulators
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Covalent bonding
• A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electrons to
form electron pairs between atoms.
• These electron pairs are known as shared pairs or bonding pairs.
• The stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms, when they
share electrons, is known as covalent bonding.
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Example
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Properties of Covalent bonding
• Because of the lack of free electrons, covalently bonded compounds do
not conduct electricity.
• Generally covalent compounds are not soluble in water.
• They are strong chemical bonds that exist between atoms.
• Most covalently bonded compounds have relatively low melting and
boiling points.
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Energy of an electron
• An electron moving around the nucleus posses two types of energies viz. kinetic
energy due `to its motion and potential energy due to the charge on the nucleus.
• The energy of an electron increases as its distance from the nucleus increases.
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Cont..
• Thus, an electron in the second orbit possesses more energy than the electron in the
first orbit; electron in the third orbit has higher energy than in the second orbit.
• The electrons in the last orbit possess very high energy as compared to the
electrons in the inner orbits.
• The last orbit electrons play an important role in determining the physical,
chemical and electrical properties of a material.
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Valance Electron
• The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as valance electrons
• The valence electrons determine the physical and chemical properties of a material.
• These electrons determine whether or not the material is chemically active: metal or
non-metal or gas or solid.
• These electrons also determine the electrical properties of a material.
• On the basis of electrical conductivity, materials are generally classified into
conductors, insulators and semi-conductors.
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Cont..
1. When the number of valence electrons of an atom is less than 4, the material is
usually a metal and a conductor.
Example:
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Cont..
2. When the number of valence electrons of an atom is more than 4, the material is
usually a non-metal and an insulator.
Example
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Cont..
3. When the number of valence electrons of an atom is 4, the material has both metal
and non-metal properties and is usually a semi-conductor.
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Free Electrons
• The valence electrons of different materials possess different energies.
• The greater the energy of a valence electron, the lesser it is bound to the nucleus.
• In metals the valence electrons possess so much energy that they are very loosely
attached to the nucleus.
• These loosely attached valence electrons move at random within the material and are
called free electrons.
• The valence electrons which are very loosely attached to the nucleus are known as
free electrons.
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Cont..
1. A conductor is a substance which has a large number of free electrons.
• When potential difference is applied across a conductor, the free electrons move
towards the positive terminal of supply, constituting electric current.
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Cont..
2. An insulator is a substance which has particularly no free electrons at
ordinary temperature.
• Therefore, an insulator does not conduct current under the influence of
potential difference.
3. A semiconductor is a substance which has very few free electrons at room
temperature.
• Consequently, under the influence of potential difference, a semiconductor
practically conducts no current.
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Quantization of Electron Energy
• An electron can radiate or absorb energy as radiation only in limited amounts or
bundles (packets) called quanta.
• This is known as the quantization of energy.
• Quantization is a physical quantity that only has discrete values.
• The energy levels of electrons of metals can be quantized.
• Quanta can be defined as the minimum quantity of energy that can either be gained
or lost by an electron.
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Cont..
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Quantum numbers
• There are four types of quantum numbers.
1. Principal quantum number (n)- Represents the main energy level,
or shell, occupied by an electron. It is always a positive integer, that is n = 1, 2, 3
2. Secondary quantum number (l ) - Represents the energy sublevel, or type of
orbital, occupied by the electron.
• The value of l depends on the value of n such that l = 0, 1, ... n-1. This number is
sometimes also called azimuthal, or subsidiary.
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Cont..
3. Magnetic quantum number (ml ) - Represents the number of possible
orientations in 3-D space for each type of orbital. Since the type of orbital is
determined by l, the value of ml ranges between -l and +l such that ml = -l, ...0, ...+l.
4. Spin quantum number (mS ) - Represents the two possible orientations that an
electron can have in the presence of a magnetic field, or in relation to another electron
occupying the same orbital. Only two electrons can occupy the same orbital, and they
must have opposite spins. When this happens, the electrons are said to be paired. The
allowed values for the spin quantum number ms are +1/2 and -1/2.
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Daltons atomic theory
• A theory of chemical combination, first stated by John Dalton in 1803.
• It involves the following postulates:
1. Elements consist of indivisible small particles (atoms).
2. All atoms of the same element are identical; different elements have different types of atoms.
3. Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed.
4. ‘Compound elements’ (i.e. compounds) are formed when atoms of different elements join in
simple ratios to form ‘compound atoms’ (i.e. molecules).
• Dalton also proposed symbols for atoms of different elements (later replaced by the present
notation using letters
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Cont..
• Isotopes: same in atomic number but different in mass number.
• Isobars: different in atomic number but same in mass number.
• Gamma particles: the set of rays did not get reflected at all proving they are
no changing particles.
• Beta particles: the second set of rays gets largely deflected due to high mass.
• Alpha particles: the third set of rays has very little deflection due to low mass.
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Nails Bohr atomic theory 1911
• Mass of electron = 9.1X10^-31kg
• Charge of electron = 1.6X10^-19c
• Diameter of atom = -10^-10m
• Diameter of nucleus = -10^-15m
• Number of electron = atomic number
• Atomic number is determined by number of protons and neutrons.
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Quantum theory
• An electron can not revolve around the nucleus and orbit is known as
stationary orbit.
• In stationary orbit the electron does not radiate electromagnetic energy.
• E2-E1 = hf or hv (f or v is frequency)
• Where h is universal/Planck's constant = 6.625 X 10^-34J, f is frequency
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Cont..
• The atom radiate out energy only when an electron jumps from one orbit to
another.
• If E1 and E2 are the energies corresponding to two orbits before and after the
jump, the frequency of the emitted photon is given by the relation: E2-E1 = hf
or ∆E = hf ,
Where, h = Planck's constant
f is frequency of the emitted radiations
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Cont..
• Calculations concerning Bohr’s atomic model,
• It can be utilized to calculate the radii of different electron orbits, velocity and
orbital frequency possessed by different electron.
• as an example a hydrogen atom consists of an electron moving in the field of a
proton.
• The electron revolves as a point like particle in a circular orbit of radii r around the
proton.
• The stability of the orbit requires equilibrium between the attractive coulomb force
on the electron & the centrifugal force.
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Cont.…
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Quiz-1
1. Calculate the value of kinetic, potential and total energy of an electron revolving
in Bohr's first and second orbit in a hydrogen atom. (є0 = 8.854X10^-12)
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Solution
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Energy Band Diagram
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Assignment
1. Explain electron configuration and atomic structure of copper and
aluminum in detail.
2. What is the difference of conductors from other elements on the
periodic table? Explain with example.
3. list 5 electrical materials in your house and explain their technology.
4. Calculate the value of kinetic, potential and total energy of an electron
revolving in Bohr's first and third orbit in a sodium atom.
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