Objective: An exhaustive study of the material selection of

spring design.
Spring:-
. •Spring is defined as an elastic machine element that deflects under the action of the load and returns
to its original shape when the load is removed.
• Spring is a resilient member capable of providing large elastic deformation. Spring is defined as an
elastic body whose function is to distort when loaded and to recover its original shape when the load is
removed.
Different functions of Springs:-
1. To absorb shocks and vibrations. – Used in Vehicle suspension springs, Railway
buffer springs, Buffer springs in elevators, Vibration mounts for machinery
2. To store energy – Used in Springs used in clocks, toys. Movie-cameras, circuit breakers, and
starters
3. To measure force – Used in Springs used in weighing balance and engine indicators
4. To control Motion – Used in the cam and follower mechanism, a spring is used to maintain
contact between two elements.
5. To apply force – Used in the engine valve mechanism, a spring is used to return the rocker
arm to its normal position when the disturbing force is removed. The spring used in the clutch
provides the required force to engage the clutch
TYPES OF SPRINGS:-
1. Helical springs
2. Conical and volute springs
3. Torsion springs
4. Laminated or leaf springs
5. Disc or Belleville springs

HELICAL SPRINGS:-
• The helical spring is made from a wire, usually of circular cross-section, that is bent in the form of a
helix.
• There are two basic types of helical springs: compression spring and tension spring.
• In helical compression spring, the external force tends to shorten the spring. In other
words, the spring is compressed.
• In helical tension spring, the external force tends to lengthen the spring. In other words, the spring is
elongated.
• It should be noted that although the spring is under compression, the wire of helical
compression spring is not subjected to compressive stress.
• Also, the wire of helical tension spring is not subjected to tensile stress although the
spring is under tension.
• In both cases, torsional shear stresses are induced in the spring wire.
• The words compression and tension are related to total spring and not the stresses in spring wire.
The helical springs have the following advantages:

• These are easy to manufacture.

• These are available in a wide range.
• These are reliable.
• These have a constant spring rate.
• Their performance can be predicted more accurately.
• Their characteristics can be varied by changing dimensions.

Application Of Helical Tension Spring :

1) Garage door assemblies

2) Vise-grip pilers
3) carburetors
Application Of Helical Compression Spring :

1) Ballpoint pens
2) Pogo sticks
3) Valve assemblies in the engine
 2. Conical and Volute Springs
• The conical and volute springs are used in special applications where a telescoping spring or a
spring with a spring rate (load required per unit deflection) that increases with the load is desired.

• The conical spring is wound with a uniform pitch whereas the volute springs are wound in the form
of a paraboloid with constant pitch and lead angles.
• This characteristic is sometimes utilized in vibration problems where springs are used to support a
body that has a varying mass.
3. Torsion Springs
• The construction of this spring is similar to that of compression or tension spring, except that the
ends are formed in such a way, that the spring is loaded by a torque, about the axis of the coils.
• Helical torsion spring is used to transmit torque to a particular component in the machine or the
mechanism.
• Helical torsion spring is used in door-hinges, brush-holders, starters, and door locks.

• For example, the spring transmits a torque of (P x r).

• The helical torsion resists the bending moment (P x r) that tends to wind up the spring.
• The bending moment induces bending stresses in the spring wire.
• The term torsion spring is somewhat misleading because the wire is subjected to bending stresses,
unlike torsional shear stresses induced in helical torsion or tension springs.
Application Of torsion Spring :

1. Mouse tracks
2. Rocker switches
3. Door hinges
4. Clipboards
5. Automobile starters

Spiral torsion spring:

• It is made of a band of steel wrapped around itself several times to create a geometric
shape as shown in the figure.
• Its inner end is attached to an arbor and the outer end is attached to a retaining drum.
• It has a few rotations and also contains a thicker band of steel.
• It releases power when it unwinds.
 Leaf Spring:-
A leaf spring is a type of mechanical spring made of one or more metal plates (leaves)
of varying lengths, stacked one over the other and clamped together.
It is one of the oldest forms of suspension spring, still widely used in commercial
vehicles due to its simplicity and load-carrying capacity.
Working Principle
When the vehicle moves over a bump:
• The axle applies an upward force on the leaf spring
• Leaves bend elastically
• Energy is stored in the form of strain energy
• On unloading, the spring returns to its original shape
The friction between leaves also provides damping, reducing the need for shock
absorbers in heavy vehicles.
Applications
• Trucks and buses
• Jeeps and off-road vehicles
• Railway wagons
• Trailers
 Disc springs:-
A disc spring, also known as a Belleville spring, is a type of mechanical spring in the form of a conical
disc.
Unlike helical springs, disc springs store energy by elastic deformation of the disc under axial load.
They are widely used where:
• High load is required in a small space
• Controlled preload and vibration resistance are important
Working Principle
• When axial compressive force is applied, the disc tends to flatten
• This deformation induces bending and radial stresses
• Elastic strain energy is stored
• On removal of load, the disc returns to its original conical shape
Disc springs show a non-linear load–deflection characteristic, which is useful for precise
load control.
Advantages of Disc Spring
• Very high load capacity in compact space
• Long fatigue life
• Good vibration damping
• Adjustable spring characteristics by stacking
• Maintains preload even with wear or thermal
Spring Materials
The material of the spring should have high fatigue strength, high ductility, high resilience and it should be creep-
resistant.
Selection of material for the spring wire depends upon the following factors:
1. The load acting on the spring
2. The range of stress through which the spring operates
3. The limitations on mass and volume of spring
4. The expected fatigue life
5. The environmental conditions in which the spring will operate such as temperature and corrosive atmosphere
6. The severity of deformation encountered while making the spring
The mainly used material for manufacturing the springs are as follows:
1. Hard drawn high carbon steel
2. Oil tempered high carbon steel
3. Stainless steel
4. Copper or nickel-based alloys
5. Phosphor bronze
6. Monel
7. Titanium
8. Chrome vanadium
9. Chrome silicon
Essential Requirements of Spring Materials

A spring material must satisfy the following requirements:

(a) High Elastic Limit
• Ensures large elastic deformation without permanent set
• Governs maximum working stress
(b) High Fatigue Strength
• Springs undergo millions of load cycles
• Fatigue failure is the most common failure mode
(c) High Resilience
• Ability to store maximum strain energy per unit volume
• Essential for compact spring design
(d) Adequate Ductility and Toughness
• Prevents brittle fracture
• Allows forming during manufacturing
(e) Creep Resistance
• Important for high-temperature applications
• Prevents gradual loss of load with time
(f) Corrosion Resistance (if required)
• Essential in marine, chemical, and outdoor environments
Effect of Operating Conditions on Spring Materials
The operating conditions under which a spring functions have a direct influence on its performance, life, and
reliability. Failure to consider these conditions during material selection may lead to premature failure.
(a) Effect of Load and Stress Level
• Springs are subjected to static, fluctuating, or shock loads
• High or fluctuating stresses increase the risk of fatigue failure
• Materials with high fatigue strength (alloy steels, chrome silicon steel) are preferred for cyclic loading
(b) Effect of Temperature
• Increase in temperature causes:
• Reduction in modulus of elasticity
• Loss of elastic limit
• Creep and stress relaxation
• Carbon steels are unsuitable above 120–180°C
• Alloy steels and nickel-based alloys are used for high-temperature applications
At low (subzero) temperatures, brittle behavior may occur unless materials like beryllium copper or spring brass
are used.
(c) Effect of Corrosive Environment
• Corrosion leads to:
• Surface pitting
• Initiation of fatigue cracks
• Reduced fatigue life
• Corrosion fatigue is one of the most dangerous failure modes
(d) Effect of Shock and Impact Loads
• Sudden loads induce very high stresses
• Materials must have:
• High toughness
• Good impact resistance
• Alloy steels like chrome vanadium and chrome silicon
are suitable

(e) Effect of Frequency of Loading

• High-frequency loading accelerates fatigue damage
• Springs operating at high speed require materials with:
• High endurance limit
• Stable microstructure
Effect of Heat Treatment on Spring Materials
Heat treatment is a critical process used to improve the mechanical properties of spring materials and enhance their service life.
(a) Purpose of Heat Treatment
Heat treatment is carried out to:
• Increase the elastic limit
• Improve fatigue strength
• Relieve residual stresses
• Enhance toughness and hardness
(b) Common Heat Treatment Processes Used for Springs
1. Hardening and Tempering
• Increases strength and elastic limit
• Prevents permanent deformation
• Most commonly used for alloy spring steels
2. Stress Relieving
• Performed after cold working or coiling
• Removes residual stresses
• Prevents distortion and early fatigue failure
3. Shot Peening
• The surface is bombarded with small steel shots
• Induces compressive residual stresses on the surface
• Greatly improves fatigue life by delaying crack initiation
• Shot peening is one of the most effective treatments for improving fatigue resistance.
(c) Effect of Improper Heat Treatment
• Excessive hardness → brittle fracture
Characteristics of some typical materials are explained below
1. Hard-drawn wire:
This is cold drawn, cheapest spring steel. Normally used for low stress and static load. The material is not suitable at subzero
temperatures or at temperatures above 120° C.
2. Oil-tempered wire:
It is a cold drawn, quenched, tempered, and general-purpose spring steel. However, it is not suitable for fatigue or sudden
loads, at subzero temperatures, and at temperatures above 180° C. When we go for highly stressed conditions then alloy
steels are useful.
3. Chrome Vanadium:
This alloy spring steel is used for high-stress conditions and at high temperature, up to 220° C. It is good for fatigue
resistance and long endurance for shock and impact loads.
4. Chrome Silicon:
This material can be used for highly stressed springs. It offers excellent service for long life, shock loading, and for
temperature up to 250° C.
5. Music wire:
This spring material is most widely used for small springs. It is the toughest and has the highest tensile strength and can
withstand repeated loading at high stresses. However, it cannot be used at subzero temperatures or at temperatures above
120° C. Normally when we talk about springs we will find that the music wire is a common choice for springs.
6. Stainless steel:
Widely used alloy spring materials.
7. Phosphor Bronze / Spring Brass:
It has good corrosion resistance and electrical conductivity. That is the reason it is commonly used for contacts in electrical
switches. Spring brass can be used at subzero temperatures.
Failure Modes Related to Material Selection in Springs:-
Fatigue Failure:
Fatigue failure is the most common cause of spring failure. Springs are generally subjected
to repeated cyclic loading, where stresses fluctuate between maximum and minimum
values. Even when these stresses are below the yield strength, cracks can initiate and
propagate over time.
Cause related to material selection:
• Low fatigue strength material
• Surface defects or inclusions
• Poor heat treatment
• Corrosive environment
Failure mechanism:
• Crack initiates at surface imperfections
• Crack propagates progressively with each load cycle
• A sudden fracture occurs after reaching the critical crack length
Prevention:
• Use materials with high fatigue endurance (chrome silicon, chrome vanadium)
• Proper heat treatment and shot peening
 Creep at High Temperature
Creep is the slow and continuous deformation of a material under constant load when exposed
to high temperature over a long period. In springs, creep causes a gradual loss of spring force.
Cause related to material selection:
• Use of carbon steel at elevated temperatures
• Insufficient creep resistance
Failure mechanism:
• Atomic diffusion causes permanent deformation
• Reduction in elastic restoring force
• Spring fails to maintain the required load
Applications affected:
• Furnace springs
• Engine valve springs
• Power plant equipment
Prevention:
• Use alloy steels or nickel-based alloys (Inconel, Monel)
• Avoid operating beyond recommended temperature limits
Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC):

Stress corrosion cracking is a dangerous failure mode that occurs due to the combined
action of tensile stress and a corrosive environment. It can lead to sudden, unexpected
fractures without prior warning.
Cause related to material selection:
• Material susceptible to corrosion
• Presence of residual or applied tensile stresses
• Corrosive media (chlorides, moisture, chemicals)
Failure mechanism:
• Corrosive attack creates micro-cracks
• Tensile stress causes crack propagation
• A brittle fracture occurs
Prevention:
• Use corrosion-resistant materials (stainless steel, phosphor bronze)
• Apply protective coatings
• Reduce residual stresses through stress relieving
Permanent set occurs when a spring does not return to its original shape after unloading.
This happens when the applied stress exceeds the elastic limit of the material.
Cause related to material selection:
• Low-yield-strength material
• Improper heat treatment
• Overloading during service
Failure mechanism:
• Plastic deformation takes place
• Loss of free length or spring force
• Reduced functional accuracy
Effects:
• Loss of preload
• Improper functioning of the mechanical system
Prevention:
• Select materials with a high elastic limit
• Use the proper design factor of safety
• Controlled heat treatment
 Application of springs:-
1. To absorb or control energy in automobile suspension springs,
vibration. dampers, railway buffers.
2. To apply forces in brakes, clutches, and valves of IC engines.
3. To store the energy in watches and toys.
4. To measure forces in spring balances, gauges.
5. To provide clamping force in toolings like jigs and fixtures, etc.
6. To control motion by maintaining contact between two elements, as in
the case of a cam and a follower, etc.
7. To exert a force, as in a spring-loaded safety valve
8. To support moving masses or to isolate vibration.
9. Tension springs are used in Industrial Robots door locks.
10. Torsion springs are used in clothespins, garage doors

References:-
Springs - Types, Diagram, Design, Material, Advantages, Application ([Link]
V. B. Bhandari, Design of Machine Elements, McGraw-Hill Education.