CHAPTER 7 — How do Organisms Reproduce?

Reproducing organisms create new individuals that look very much like themselves.

Do organisms create exact copies of themselves:

 The chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell contain information for inheritance of features
from parents to next generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecules.

 The DNA in the cell nucleus is the information source for making proteins. If the information
is changed, different proteins will be made. Different proteins will eventually lead to altered
body designs.

 A basic event in reproduction is the creation of a DNA copy. Cells use chemical reactions to
build copies of their DNA.

 This creates two copies of the DNA in a reproducing cell, and they will need to be separated
from each other. However, keeping one copy of DNA in the original cell and simply pushing
the other one out would not work, because the copy pushed out would not have any
organised cellular structure for maintaining life processes.

 Therefore, DNA copying is accompanied by the creation of an additional cellular apparatus,

and then the DNA copies separate, each with its own cellular apparatus. Effectively, a cell
divides to give rise to two cells.

 These two cells are of course similar, but are they likely to be absolutely identical?

1. No bio-chemical reaction is absolutely reliable. Therefore, it is only to be expected that the

process of copying the DNA will have some variations each time.

2. As a result, the DNA copies generated will be similar, but may not be identical to the original.
Some of these variations might be so drastic that the new DNA copy cannot work with the
cellular apparatus it inherits. Such a newborn cell will simply die.

3. On the other hand, there could still be many other variations in the DNA copies that would
not lead to such a drastic outcome. Thus, the surviving cells are similar to, but subtly
different from each other.

4. This inbuilt tendency for variation during reproduction is the basis for evolution.

The Importance of Variation:

 Populations of organisms fill well-defined places, or niches, in the ecosystem, using their
ability to reproduce.

 The consistency of DNA copying during reproduction is important for the maintenance of
body design features that allow the organism to use that particular niche.

 Reproduction is linked to the stability of populations of species.

  Niches can change because of reasons beyond the control of the organisms. Temperatures
on earth can go up or down, water levels can vary, or there could be meteorite hits, to think
of a few examples.

 If a population of reproducing organisms were suited to a particular niche and if the niche
were drastically altered, the population could be wiped out.

 However, if some variations were to be present in a few individuals in these populations,

there would be some chance for them to survive.

 Thus, if there were a population of bacteria living in temperate waters, and if the water
temperature were to be increased by global warming, most of these bacteria would die, but
the few variants resistant to heat would survive and grow further.

 Variation is thus useful for the survival of species over time.

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Q1. What is the importance of DNA copying in reproduction?

Ans: DNA copying is essential for reproduction because it ensures the transmission of genetic traits
from parents to offspring and creates the variation needed for a species to adapt and evolve. This
process ensures that each new organism receives the correct set of genetic instructions to develop
and function, while also allowing for genetic diversity within the population.

Q2. Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessarily for the individual?

Ans: Variations are beneficial to the species than individual because sometimes for a species, the
environmental conditions change so drastically that their survival becomes difficult. For example, if
the temperature of water increases suddenly, then most of the bacteria living in that water would
die. Only few variants that are resistant to heat would be able to survive. However, if these variants
were not there, then the entire species of bacteria would have been destroyed. Thus, these variants
help in the survival of the species. However, all variations are not necessarily beneficial for the
individual organism.

Modes of Reproduction used by single-celled organisms:

Fission:

 For unicellular organisms, cell division, or fission, leads to the creation of new individuals.

 Many bacteria and protozoa simply split into two equal halves during cell division.

 In organisms such as Amoeba, the splitting of the two cells during division can take place in
any plane.

 Some unicellular organisms show somewhat more organisation of their bodies, such as is
seen in Leishmania (which cause kala-azar), which have a whip-like structure at one end of
the cell.

 In such organisms, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to these

structures.
  Other single-celled organisms, such as the malarial parasite Plasmodium, divide into many
daughter cells simultaneously by multiple fission.

 Yeast, on the other hand, can put out small buds that separate and grow further.

Fragmentation:

 In multi-cellular organisms with relatively simple body organisation, simple reproductive

methods can still work.

 Spirogyra, for example, simply breaks up into smaller pieces upon maturation.

 These pieces or fragments grow into new individuals.

 This is not true for all multi-cellular organisms. They cannot simply divide cell-by-cell.

 The reason is that many multi-cellular organisms are not simply a random collection of cells.
Specialised cells are organised as tissues, and tissues are organised into organs, which then
have to be placed at definite positions in the body.

 In such a carefully organised situation, cell-by-cell division would be impractical.

 Multi-cellular organisms, therefore, need to use more complex ways of reproduction.

 Reproduction in such organisms is also the function of a specific cell type.

 There must be a single cell type in the organism that is capable of growing, proliferating and
making other cell types under the right circumstances.

Regeneration:

 Many fully differentiated organisms have the ability to give rise to new individual organisms
from their body parts.

 If the individual is somehow cut or broken up into many pieces, many of these pieces grow
into separate individuals.

 For example, simple animals like Hydra and Planaria can be cut into any number of pieces
and each piece grows into a complete organism. This is known as regeneration.

 Regeneration is carried out by specialised cells. These cells proliferate and make large
numbers of cells.

 From this mass of cells, different cells undergo changes to become various cell types and
tissues.

 These changes take place in an organised sequence referred to as development.

 Regeneration is not the same as reproduction, since most organisms would not normally
depend on being cut up to be able to reproduce.

Budding:
  Organisms such as Hydra use regenerative cells for reproduction in the process of budding.

 In Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one specific site.

 These buds develop into tiny individuals and when fully mature, detach from the parent
body and become new independent individuals.

Vegetative Propagation:

 There are many plants in which parts like the root, stem and leaves develop into new plants
under appropriate conditions.

 Unlike in most animals, plants can indeed use such a mode for reproduction.

 This property of vegetative propagation is used in methods such as layering or grafting to

grow many plants like sugarcane, roses, or grapes for agricultural purposes.

 Plants raised by vegetative propagation can bear flowers and fruits earlier than those
produced from seeds.

 Such methods also make possible the propagation of plants such as banana, orange, rose
and jasmine that have lost the capacity to produce seeds.

 Another advantage of vegetative propagation is that all plants produced are genetically
similar enough to the parent plant to have all its characteristics.

 Buds produced in the notches along the leaf margin of Bryophyllum fall on the soil and
develop into new plants.

Spore Formation:

 Even in many simple multi-cellular organisms, specific reproductive parts can be identified.

 The thread-like structures that developed on the bread are the hyphae of the bread mould
(Rhizopus). They are not reproductive parts.

 The tiny blob-on-a-stick structures are involved in reproduction. The blobs are sporangia,
which contain cells, or spores, that can eventually develop into new Rhizopus individuals.

 The spores are covered by thick walls that protect them until they come into contact with
another moist surface and can begin to grow.

Asexual Reproduction:

New generations created from a single individual are known as asexual reproduction.

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Q1. How does binary fission differ from multiple fission?

Binary Fission Multiple Fission

In binary fission, a single-celled organism divides into

In multiple fission, one cell divides to
two equal halves to form two new individuals. It usually
produce many daughter cells at the same
occurs in organisms like Amoeba, Leishmania, and many
time. This type of reproduction is seen in
bacteria. The process can take place in any plane in
Plasmodium (the malarial parasite), where
Amoeba, but in Leishmania, which has a definite body
several new individuals are formed
structure with a whip-like flagellum, the fission occurs
simultaneously from a single parent cell.
in a specific orientation.

Q2. How will an organism be benefited if it reproduces through spores?

Ans 1:
An organism will be benefitted if it reproduces through spores because:
(i) It is a simpler and faster mode of reproduction.
(ii) Spores being small and light, get easily dispersed through wind, water and animals. Thus, its
dispersal becomes easier.
(iii) Spores bear thick resistant covering to enable them to survive even in unfavourable conditions.

OR

Organisms benefit from spore reproduction because it allows for survival in adverse conditions, rapid
and widespread dispersal, and high-volume reproduction. Spores have thick, protective walls that
help them survive unfavorable environments until conditions become favorable for germination.
Their small, light nature facilitates dispersal by air, water, or animals, enabling the organism to
colonize new areas and avoid competition. The ability to produce large numbers of spores also
increases the chances of survival and population growth.

Q3. Can you think of reasons why more complex organisms cannot give rise to new individuals
through regeneration?

More complex organisms cannot reproduce by regeneration process because:

(i) Their body is highly complicated.
(ii) There are specific organs to do specific functions.
(iii) There is a division of labour in the body of complex organisms.
(iv) Regeneration is carried out by specialised cells, which are not present in complex organisms.

Q4. Why is vegetative propagation practised for growing some types of plants?

Ans:

 It is used in methods such as layering or grafting to grow many plants like sugarcane, roses,
or grapes for agricultural purposes.

 Plants raised by vegetative propagation can bear flowers and fruits earlier than those
produced from seeds.
  Such methods also make possible the propagation of plants such as banana, orange, rose
and jasmine that have lost the capacity to produce seeds.

 All plants produced are genetically similar enough to the parent plant to have all its
characteristics.

 Buds produced in the notches along the leaf margin of Bryophyllum fall on the soil and
develop into new plants.

Sexual Reproduction

Modes of reproduction that depend on the involvement of two individuals before a new generation
can be created.

Why the Sexual Mode of Reproduction:

 The creation of two new cells from one involves copying of the DNA as well as of the cellular
apparatus.

 The DNA copying mechanism cannot be absolutely accurate, and the resultant errors are a
source of variations in populations of organisms.

 Every individual organism cannot be protected by variations, but in a population, variations

are useful for ensuring the survival of the species.

 It would therefore make sense if organisms came up with reproductive modes that allowed
more and more variation to be generated.

 While DNA-copying mechanisms are not absolutely accurate, they are precise enough to
make the generation of variation a fairly slow process.

 If the DNA copying mechanisms were to be less accurate, many of the resultant DNA copies
would not be able to work with the cellular apparatus, and would die.

 Each new variation is made in a DNA copy that already has variations accumulated from
previous generations.

 Thus, two different individuals in a population would have quite different patterns of
accumulated variations. Since all of these variations are in living individuals, it is assured that
they do not have any really bad effects.

 Combining variations from two or more individuals would thus create new combinations of
variants. Each combination would be novel, since it would involve two different individuals.

 The sexual mode of reproduction incorporates such a process of combining DNA from two
different individuals during reproduction.

 But this creates a major difficulty. If each new generation is to be the combination of the
DNA copies from two pre-existing individuals, then each new generation will end up having
twice the amount of DNA that the previous generation had. This is likely to mess up the
control of the cellular apparatus by the DNA.
  One solution that many multi-cellular organisms have found is to have special lineages of
cells in specialised organs in which only half the number of chromosomes and half the
amount of DNA as compared to the non-reproductive body cells.

 This is achieved by a process of cell division called meiosis. Thus, when these germ-cells from
two individuals combine during sexual reproduction to form a new individual, it results in re-
establishment of the number of chromosomes and the DNA content in the new generation.

 If the zygote is to grow and develop into an organism which has highly specialised tissues and
organs, then it has to have sufficient stores of energy for doing this.

 In very simple organisms, it is seen that the two germ-cells are not very different from one
another, or may even be similar.

 But as the body designs become more complex, the germ-cells also specialise. One germ-cell
is large and contains the food-stores while the other is smaller and likely to be motile.

 Conventionally, the motile germ-cell is called the male gamete and the germ-cell containing
the stored food is called the female gamete.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

 The reproductive parts of angiosperms are located in the flower.

 Stamens and pistil are the reproductive parts of a flower which contain the germ-cells.

The Different Parts of a Flower are as follows:

1. Stamen is the male reproductive part and it produces pollen grains that are yellowish in
colour.

o It is the yellowish powder that often sticks to our hands if we touch the stamen of a
flower.

2. Pistil is present in the centre of a flower and is the female reproductive part.

o It is made of three parts:

 (i) The swollen bottom part is the ovary. The ovary contains ovules and each
ovule has an egg cell.

 (ii) The middle elongated part is the style.

 (iii) The terminal part, which may be sticky, is the stigma.

Types of Flowers:

 The flower may be unisexual (papaya, watermelon) when it contains either stamens or pistil.

 Or bisexual (Hibiscus, mustard) when it contains both stamens and pistil.

Pollination and Fertilisation:

  The male germ-cell produced by pollen grain fuses with the female gamete present in the
ovule.

 This fusion of the germ-cells or fertilisation gives us the zygote, which is capable of growing
into a new plant.

 Thus, the pollen needs to be transferred from the stamen to the stigma.

o If this transfer of pollen occurs in the same flower, it is referred to as self-

pollination.

o If the pollen is transferred from one flower to another, it is known as cross-

pollination.

 This transfer of pollen from one flower to another is achieved by agents like wind, water or
animals.

 After the pollen lands on a suitable stigma, it has to reach the female germ-cells which are in
the ovary.

 For this, a tube grows out of the pollen grain and travels through the style to reach the
ovary.

 After fertilisation, the zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule.

 The ovule develops a tough coat and is gradually converted into a seed.

 The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.

 Meanwhile, the petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma may shrivel and fall off.

 The seed contains the future plant or embryo which develops into a seedling under
appropriate conditions.

 This process is known as germination.

Reproduction in Human Beings

Changes that take place in our body during puberty are as follows:

Some of these changes are common to both boys and girls:

1. We begin to notice thick hair growing in new parts of the body such as armpits and the
genital area between the thighs, which can also become darker in colour.

2. Thinner hair can also appear on legs and arms, as well as on the face.

3. The skin frequently becomes oily and we might begin to develop pimples.

4. We begin to be conscious and aware of both our own bodies and those of others in new
ways.

On the other hand, there are also changes taking place that are different between boys and girls:
 1. In girls, breast size begins to increase, with darkening of the skin of the nipples at the tips of
the breasts.

2. Also, girls begin to menstruate at around this time.

3. Boys begin to have new thick hair growth on the face and their voices begin to crack.

4. Further, the penis occasionally begins to become enlarged and erect, either in daydreams or
at night.

Additional Points:

 The physical changes during puberty happen gradually over months or years.

 These changes don’t occur at the same time or age for everyone.

 Some people mature earlier or faster, while others do so slowly.

 Each change (like facial hair in boys) develops step by step, not all at once.

 There are individual differences in how these changes appear — just like we have different
facial features.

 All these variations are part of the body’s process of sexual maturation.

Why does the body show sexual maturation at this age?

1. The creation of germ-cells to participate in sexual reproduction is another specialised

function.

2. Human beings also develop special tissues for this purpose.

3. However, while the body of the individual organism is growing to its adult size, the resources
of the body are mainly directed at achieving this growth.

4. While that is happening, the maturation of the reproductive tissue is not likely to be a major
priority.

5. Thus, as the rate of general body growth begins to slow down, reproductive tissues begin to
mature. This period during adolescence is called puberty.

 The sexual mode of reproduction means that germ-cells from two individuals have to join
together.

 This can happen by the external release of germ-cells from the bodies of individuals.

 Or it can happen by two individuals joining their bodies together for internal transfer of
germ-cells for fusion, as happens in many animals.

 If animals are to participate in this process of mating, their state of sexual maturity must be
identifiable by other individuals.

 Many changes during puberty, such as new hair-growth patterns, are signals that sexual
maturation is taking place.
Male Reproductive System

 The formation of germ-cells or sperms takes place in the testes.

 These are located outside the abdominal cavity in the scrotum because sperm formation
requires a lower temperature than the normal body temperature.

 In addition to regulating the formation of sperms, testes bring about changes in appearance
seen in boys at the time of puberty by secreting the hormone testosterone.

 The sperms formed are delivered through the vas deferens, which unites with a tube coming
from the urinary bladder.

 The urethra thus forms a common passage for both the sperms and urine.

 Along the path of the vas deferens, glands like the prostate and the seminal vesicles add
their secretions so that the sperms are now in a fluid which makes their transport easier and
this fluid also provides nutrition.

 The sperms are tiny bodies that consist mainly of genetic material and a long tail that helps
them to move towards the female germ-cell.

Female Reproductive System

 The female germ-cells or eggs are made in the ovaries. They are also responsible for the
production of some hormones.

 When a girl is born, the ovaries already contain thousands of immature eggs. On reaching
puberty, some of these start maturing. One egg is produced every month by one of the
ovaries.

 The egg is carried from the ovary to the womb through a thin oviduct or fallopian tube.

 The two oviducts unite into an elastic bag-like structure known as the uterus. The uterus
opens into the vagina through the cervix.

 The sperms enter through the vaginal passage during sexual intercourse. They travel
upwards and reach the oviduct where they may encounter the egg.

 The fertilised egg (zygote) starts dividing and forms a ball of cells or embryo. The embryo is
implanted in the lining of the uterus where they continue to grow and develop organs to
become foetus.

 The mother’s body is designed to undertake the development of the child. Hence, the uterus
prepares itself every month to receive and nurture the growing embryo.

 The lining thickens and is richly supplied with blood to nourish the growing embryo.

 The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue called
placenta. This is a disc which is embedded in the uterine wall. It contains villi on the
embryo’s side of the tissue.

 On the mother’s side are blood spaces, which surround the villi. This provides a large surface
area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother to the embryo.
  The developing embryo will also generate waste substances which can be removed by
transferring them into the mother’s blood through the placenta.

 The development of the child inside the mother’s body takes approximately nine months.

 The child is born as a result of rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the uterus.

What Happens When the Egg is Not Fertilised?

 If the egg is not fertilised, it lives for about one day.

 Since the ovary releases one egg every month, the uterus also prepares itself every month to
receive a fertilised egg.

 Thus, its lining becomes thick and spongy. This would be required for nourishing the embryo
if fertilisation had taken place.

 Now, however, this lining is not needed any longer. So, the lining slowly breaks and comes
out through the vagina as blood and mucous.

 This cycle takes place roughly every month and is known as menstruation.

 It usually lasts for about two to eight days.

Reproductive Health

 Diseases can be sexually transmitted. These include bacterial infections such as gonorrhoea
and syphilis, and viral infections such as warts and HIV-AIDS.

 Using a covering, called a condom, for the penis during sex helps to prevent transmission of
many of these infections to some extent.

 Many ways have been devised to avoid pregnancy. These contraceptive methods fall in a
number of categories:

1. Mechanical Barriers: Creation of a barrier so that sperm does not reach the egg.

o Condoms on the penis or similar coverings worn in the vagina can serve this
purpose.

2. Hormonal Methods: Contraceptives that act by changing the hormonal balance of the body
so that eggs are not released and fertilisation cannot occur.

o These drugs are commonly taken orally as pills.

o However, since they change hormonal balances, they can cause side-effects too.

3. Devices: Other contraceptive devices such as the loop or the copper-T are placed in the
uterus to prevent pregnancy.

o Again, they can cause side effects due to irritation of the uterus.

4. Surgical Methods:
 o If the vas deferens in the male is blocked, sperm transfer will be prevented.

o If the fallopian tube in the female is blocked, the egg will not be able to reach the
uterus.

o In both cases, fertilisation will not take place.

o Surgical methods (vasectomy in males and tubectomy in females) can be used to

create such blocks.

o While surgical methods are safe in the long run, surgery itself can cause infections
and other problems if not performed properly.

 Surgery can also be used for removal of unwanted pregnancies.

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Q1. How is the process of pollination different from fertilisation?

Pollination Fertilization

1. The process of transfer of pollen grains from the 1. Fertilization is the fusion of male and
anther to stigma is known as pollination. female gametes to form zygote.

2. It takes place on the stigma of either the same

2. It takes place inside an ovule.
flower or a different flower.

3. External agents like wind, insects etc. are required. 3. No external agent is required.

4. It is a physical process. 4. It is a biological process.

5. It occurs in both plants and animals of

5. It occurs only in seeds.
various types.

Q2. Along the path of the vas deferens, glands like the prostate and the seminal vesicles add their
secretions so that the sperms are now in a fluid which makes their transport easier and this fluid
also provides nutrition.

Q3. What are the changes seen in girls at the time of puberty?

Ans: In girls, breast size begins to increase, with darkening of the skin of the nipples at the tips of the
breasts. Also, girls begin to menstruate at around this time.

Q4. How does the embryo get nourishment inside the mother’s body?

 The mother’s body is designed to undertake the development of the child. Hence the uterus
prepares itself every month to receive and nurture the growing embryo.

 The lining thickens and is richly supplied with blood to nourish the growing embryo.
  The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue called
placenta. This is a disc which is embedded in the uterine wall. It contains villi on the
embryo’s side of the tissue.

 On the mother’s side are blood spaces, which surround the villi. This provides a large surface
area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother to the embryo.

 The developing embryo will also generate waste substances which can be removed by
transferring them into the mother’s blood through the placenta.

Q5. If a woman is using a copper-T, will it help in protecting her from sexually transmitted
diseases?

Ans: No, a Copper-T (or copper IUD) does not protect against sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)
because it does not act as a barrier to prevent the direct contact of bodily fluids during intercourse. It
is a form of contraception that works by making the uterus an inhospitable environment for sperm,
preventing fertilization and implantation. The only method that protects against both pregnancy and
STDs is the use of condoms.

Exercise

1. What are the advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction?

Ans:
i] In sexual reproduction, more variations are produced. Thus, it ensures survival of species in a
population.
ii] The newly formed individual has characteristics of both the parents.
iii] Variations are more viable in sexual mode than in asexual one. This is because in asexual
reproduction, DNA has to function inside the inherited cellular apparatus.
iv] As there are genetic variations, evolution is possible and new species evolve.

2. What are the functions performed by the testis in human beings?

Ans: The formation of germ-cells or sperms takes place in the testes. In addition to regulating the
formation of sperms, testes brings about changes in appearance seen in boys at the time of puberty
by secreting the hormone testosterone.

3. Why does menstruation occur?

(Refer to section: What happens when the egg is not fertilized?)

4. What are the different methods of contraception?

Ans:

 By using condoms or similar covering in vagina.

  By taking contraceptive pills which change the hormonal balance of body and fertilisation
does not occur.

 By using some other contraceptive devices such as loops or copper T.

 Surgical methods to block vas deferens in male and fallopian tube in females.

5. How are the modes for reproduction different in unicellular and multicellular organisms?

Ans:
Unicellular organisms primarily reproduce asexually through methods like binary fission or budding,
as a single cell performs all functions, including reproduction. In contrast, multicellular organisms can
reproduce both asexually (e.g., vegetative propagation) and sexually, the latter involving specialized
reproductive cells and organs.

Unicellular Organisms

 Mode: Primarily asexual.

 Process: A single cell divides into new, identical daughter cells.

 Examples:

o Binary fission: A parent cell splits into two identical daughter cells (bacteria,
amoeba).

o Budding: A new organism develops from an outgrowth or bud on the parent's body
(yeast).

o Other methods: Multiple fission and fragmentation.

Multicellular Organisms

 Mode: Can be asexual or sexual.

 Process:

o Asexual: A single organism reproduces without the fusion of gametes (e.g.,

vegetative propagation in plants, budding in some animals).

o Sexual: Involves the fusion of gametes (sperm and egg) from two parents to create a
new organism, leading to genetic variation.

 Examples:

o Asexual: Spores in plants, vegetative propagation.

o Sexual: Reproduction in humans and other vertebrates.

6. How does reproduction help in providing stability to populations of species?

Ans: Reproduction provides population stability by ensuring new individuals replace older ones,
keeping the birth and death rates balanced. It also generates genetic variation, especially through
sexual reproduction, which allows species to adapt to environmental changes and survive in the long
term.

7. What could be the reasons for adopting contraceptive methods?

Ans:

 The sexual act always has the potential to lead to pregnancy. Pregnancy will make major
demands on the body and the mind of the woman, and if she is not ready for it, her health
will be adversely affected. Therefore, many ways have been devised to avoid pregnancy.

 The possible health consequences of having sex. Diseases can be transmitted from person to
person in a variety of ways.

 Therefore, some degree of sexual maturation does not necessarily mean that the body or the
mind is ready for sexual acts or for having and bringing up children.