CHAPTER 7

How do Organisms Reproduce?

Reproducing organisms create new individuals that look very much like
themselves.
Do organisms create exact copies of themselves:
 The chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell contain information for
inheritance of features from parents to next generation in the form of
DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecules.
 The DNA in the cell nucleus is the information source for making
proteins. If the information is changed, different proteins will be made.
Different proteins will eventually lead to altered body designs.
 a basic event in reproduction is the creation of a DNA copy. Cells use
chemical reactions to build copies of their DNA.
 This creates two copies of the DNA in a reproducing cell, and they will
need to be separated from each other. However, keeping one copy of
DNA in the original cell and simply pushing the other one out would not
work, because the copy pushed out would not have any organised
cellular structure for maintaining life processes.
 Therefore, DNA copying is accompanied by the creation of an additional
cellular apparatus, and then the DNA copies separate, each with its own
cellular apparatus. Effectively, a cell divides to give rise to two cells.
 These two cells are of course similar, but are they likely to be absolutely
identical?
1. No bio-chemical reaction is absolutely reliable. Therefore, it is only to be
expected that the process of copying the DNA will have some variations
each time.
2. As a result, the DNA copies generated will be similar, but may not be
identical to the original. Some of these variations might be so drastic that
the new DNA copy cannot work with the cellular apparatus it inherits.
Such a newborn cell will simply die.
3. On the other hand, there could still be many other variations in the DNA
copies that would not lead to such a drastic outcome. Thus, the surviving
cells are similar to, but subtly different from each other.
4. This inbuilt tendency for variation during reproduction is the basis for
evolution.
The importance of Variation:

 Populations of organisms fill well-defined places, or niches, in the

ecosystem, using their ability to reproduce.
 The consistency of DNA copying during reproduction is important for the
maintenance of body design features that allow the organism to use that
particular niche.
 Reproduction is linked to the stability of populations of species.
 Niches can change because of reasons beyond the control of the
organisms. Temperatures on earth can go up or down, water levels can
vary, or there could be meteorite hits, to think of a few examples.
 If a population of reproducing organisms were suited to a particular
niche and if the niche were drastically altered, the population could be
wiped out.
 However, if some variations were to be present in a few individuals in
these populations, there would be some chance for them to survive.
 Thus, if there were a population of bacteria living in temperate waters,
and if the water temperature were to be increased by global warming,
most of these bacteria would die, but the few variants resistant to heat
would survive and grow further.
 Variation is thus useful for the survival of species over time.

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Q1 What is the importance of DNA copying in reproduction?
Ans : DNA copying is essential for reproduction because it ensures the
transmission of genetic traits from parents to offspring and creates the
variation needed for a species to adapt and evolve. This process ensures that
each new organism receives the correct set of genetic instructions to develop
and function, while also allowing for genetic diversity within the population.
Q2 Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessarily for the
individual?
Ans: Variations are beneficial to the species than individual because sometimes
for a species, the environmental conditions change so drastically that their
survival becomes difficult For example,if the temperature of water increases
suddenly, then most of the bacteria living in that water would die Only few
variants that are resistant to heat would be able to survive. However if these
variants were not there, then the entire species of bacteria would have been
destroyed Thus, these vaiants help in the survival of the species. However, all
variations are not necessarily beneficial for the individual organis
Modes of Reproduction used by single celled organisms:
Fission:
 For unicellular organisms, cell division, or fission, leads to the creation of
new individuals.
 Many bacteria and protozoa simply split into two equal halves during cell
division.
 In organisms such as Amoeba, the splitting of the two cells during
division can take place in any plane.
 Some unicellular organisms show somewhat more organisation of their
bodies, such as is seen in Leishmania (which cause kala-azar), which have
a whip-like structure at one end of the cell.
 In such organisms, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in
relation to these structures.
 Other single-celled organisms, such as the malarial parasite,
Plasmodium, divide into many daughter cells simultaneously by multiple
fission.
 Yeast, on the other hand, can put out small buds that separate and grow
further.
Fragmentation:
 In multi-cellular organisms with relatively simple body organisation,
simple reproductive methods can still work.
 Spirogyra, for example, simply breaks up into smaller pieces upon
maturation.
 These pieces or fragments grow into new individuals.
 This is not true for all multi-cellular organisms. They cannot simply divide
cell-by-cell.
 The reason is that many multi-cellular organisms, as we have seen, are not
simply a random collection of cells. Specialised cells are organised as
tissues, and tissues are organised into organs, which then have to be placed
at definite positions in the body. In such a carefully organised situation, cell-
by-cell division would be impractical. Multi-cellular organisms, therefore,
need to use more complex ways of reproduction.
 Reproduction in such organisms is also the function of a specific cell type.
 there must be a single cell type in the organism that is capable of growing,
proliferating and making other cell types under the right circumstances.
Regeneration:

 Many fully differentiated organisms have the ability to give rise to new
individual organisms from their body parts.
 That is, if the individual is somehow cut or broken up into many pieces,
many of these pieces grow into separate individuals.
 For example, simple animals like Hydra and Planaria can be cut into any
number of pieces and each piece grows into a complete organism. This is
known as regeneration.
 Regeneration is carried out by specialised cells. These cells proliferate
and make large numbers of cells.
 From this mass of cells, different cells undergo changes to become
various cell types and tissues.
 These changes take place in an organised sequence referred to as
development.
 Regeneration is not the same as reproduction, since most organisms
would not normally depend on being cut up to be able to reproduce.

Budding:
 Organisms such as Hydra use regenerative cells for reproduction in the
process of budding.
 In Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at
one specific site.
 These buds develop into tiny individuals and when fully mature, detach
from the parent body and become new independent individuals.
Vegetative Propagation:

 There are many plants in which parts like the root, stem and leaves
develop into new plants under appropriate conditions.
 Unlike in most animals, plants can indeed use such a mode for
reproduction.
  This property of vegetative propagation is used in methods such as
layering or grafting to grow many plants like sugarcane, roses, or grapes
for agricultural purposes.
 Plants raised by vegetative propagation can bear flowers and fruits
earlier than those produced from seeds.
 Such methods also make possible the propagation of plants such as
banana, orange, rose and jasmine that have lost the capacity to produce
seeds.
 Another advantage of vegetative propagation is that all plants produced
are genetically similar enough to the parent plant to have all its
characteristics.
 Buds produced in the notches along the leaf margin of Bryophyllum fall
on the soil and develop into new plants.

Tissue culture
 In tissue culture, new plants are grown by removing tissue or separating cells from
the growing tip of a plant.
 The cells are then placed in an artificial medium where they divide rapidly to form a
small group of cells or callus.
 The callus is transferred to another medium containing hormones for growth and
differentiation.
 The plantlets are then placed in the soil so that they can grow into mature plants.
 Using tissue culture, many plants can be grown from one parent in disease-free
conditions.
 This technique is commonly used for ornamental plants.

Spor Formation:
 Even in many simple multi-cellular organisms, specific reproductive parts
can be identified. \
 The thread-like structures that developed on the bread are the hyphae
of the bread mould (Rhizopus). They are not reproductive parts.
 On the other hand, the tiny blob-on-a-stick structures are involved in
reproduction. The blobs are sporangia, which contain cells, or spores,
that can eventually develop into new Rhizopus individuals (Fig. 7.6). The
spores are covered by thick walls that protect them until they come into
contact with another moist surface and can begin to grow.
Asexual Reproduction: new generations to be created from a single individual is
known as asexual reproduction.
Intext pg 119:
Q1 How does binary fission differ from multiple fission?
Binary Fission Multiple Fission
In binary fission, a single-celled
organism divides into two equal halves
In multiple fission, one cell divides to
to form two new individuals. It usually
produce many daughter cells at the
occurs in organisms like Amoeba,
same time. This type of reproduction
Leishmania, and many bacteria. The
is seen in Plasmodium (the malarial
process can take place in any plane in
parasite), where several new
Amoeba, but in Leishmania, which has
individuals are formed simultaneously
a definite body structure with a whip-
from a single parent cell.
like flagellum, the fission occurs in a
specific orientation.
Q2 How will an organism be benefited if it reproduces through spores?
Ans 1 An organism will be benefitted if it reproduces through spores because :
(i) It is a simpler and faster mode of reproduction.
(ii) Spores being small and light, get easily dispersed through wind, water and
animals. Thus, its dispersal becomes easier.
(iii) Spores bear thick resistant covering to enable them to survive even in
unfavourable conditions.
OR
Organisms benefit from spore reproduction because it allows for survival in
adverse conditions, rapid and widespread dispersal, and high-volume
reproduction. Spores have thick, protective walls that help them survive
unfavorable environments until conditions become favorable for
germination. Their small, light nature facilitates dispersal by air, water, or
animals, enabling the organism to colonize new areas and avoid
competition. The ability to produce large numbers of spores also increases the
chances of survival and population growth.
Q3 Can you think of reasons why more complex organisms cannot give rise to
new individuals through regeneration?
More complex organisms cannot reproduce by regeneration process because:
(i) their body is highly complicated,
(ii) there are specific organs to do specific functions,
(iii) there is a division of labour in the body of complex organisms,
(iv) regeneration is carried out by specialised cells, which are not present in
complex organisms.
Q4 Why is vegetative propagation practised for growing some types of plants?
Ans
 It is used in methods such as layering or grafting to grow many plants like
sugarcane, roses, or grapes for agricultural purposes.
 Plants raised by vegetative propagation can bear flowers and fruits
earlier than those produced from seeds.
 Such methods also make possible the propagation of plants such as
banana, orange, rose and jasmine that have lost the capacity to produce
seeds.
 all plants produced are genetically similar enough to the parent plant to
have all its characteristics.
 Buds produced in the notches along the leaf margin of Bryophyllum fall
on the soil and develop into new plants.
Sexual Reproduction:
modes of reproduction that depend on the involvement of two individuals
before a new generation can be created.
Why the Sexual Mode of reproduction:
 The creation of two new cells from one involves copying of the DNA as
well as of the cellular apparatus.
 The DNA copying mechanism cannot be absolutely accurate, and the
resultant errors are a source of variations in populations of organisms.
 Every individual organism cannot be protected by variations, but in a
population, variations are useful for ensuring the survival of the species.
 It would therefore make sense if organisms came up with reproductive
modes that allowed more and more variation to be generated.
 While DNA-copying mechanisms are not absolutely accurate, they are
precise enough to make the generation of variation a fairly slow process.
 If the DNA copying mechanisms were to be less accurate, many of the
resultant DNA copies would not be able to work with the cellular
apparatus, and would die.
 Each new variation is made in a DNA copy that already has variations
accumulated from previous generations.
 Thus, two different individuals in a population would have quite different
patterns of accumulated variations. Since all of these variations are in
living individuals, it is assured that they do not have any really bad
effects.
 Combining variations from two or more individuals would thus create
new combinations of variants. Each combination would be novel, since it
would involve two different individuals.
 The sexual mode of reproduction incorporates such a process of
combining DNA from two different individuals during reproduction.
 But this creates a major difficulty. If each new generation is to be the
combination of the DNA copies from two pre-existing individuals, then
each new generation will end up having twice the amount of DNA that
the previous generation had. This is likely to mess up the control of the
cellular apparatus by the DNA.
 One solution that many multi-cellular organisms have found is to have
special lineages of cells in specialised organs in which only half the
number of chromosomes and half the amount of DNA as compared to
the non-reproductive body cells.
 This is achieved by a process of cell division called meiosis. Thus, when
these germ-cells from two individuals combine during sexual
reproduction to form a new individual, it results in re-establishment of
the number of chromosomes and the DNA content in the new
generation.
 If the zygote is to grow and develop into an organism which has highly
specialised tissues and organs, then it has to have sufficient stores of
energy for doing this.
 In very simple organisms, it is seen that the two germ-cells are not very
different from one another, or may even be similar.
 But as the body designs become more complex, the germ-cells also
specialise. One germ-cell is large and contains the food-stores while the
other is smaller and likely to be motile.
  Conventionally, the motile germ-cell is called the male gamete and the
germ-cell containing the stored food is called the female gamete.
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants:

 The reproductive parts of angiosperms are located in the flower.

 Stamens and pistil are the reproductive parts of a flower which contain
the germ-cells.
 the different parts of a flower are as follows:
1. Stamen is the male reproductive part and it produces pollen grains that
are yellowish in colour. It is the yellowish powder that often sticks to our
hands if we touch the stamen of a flower.
2. Pistil is present in the centre of a flower and is the female reproductive
part. It is made of three parts.
I. The swollen bottom part is the ovary, The ovary contains ovules and each
ovule has an egg cell.
II. middle elongated part is the style and the terminal part which may be
sticky is the stigma.
 The flower may be unisexual (papaya, watermelon) when it contains
either stamens or pistil or bisexual (Hibiscus, mustard) when it contains
both stamens and pistil.
 The male germ-cell produced by pollen grain fuses with the female
gamete present in the ovule. This fusion of the germ-cells or fertilisation
gives us the zygote which is capable of growing into a new plant.
 Thus the pollen needs to be transferred from the stamen to the stigma. If
this transfer of pollen occurs in the same flower, it is referred to as self-
pollination.
 On the other hand, if the pollen is transferred from one flower to
another, it is known as cross-pollination. This transfer of pollen from one
flower to another is achieved by agents like wind, water or animals.
 After the pollen lands on a suitable stigma, it has to reach the female
germ-cells which are in the ovary. For this, a tube grows out of the pollen
grain and travels through the style to reach the ovary.
 After fertilisation, the zygote divides several times to form an embryo
within the ovule.
 The ovule develops a tough coat and is gradually converted into a seed.
The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
  Meanwhile, the petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma may shrivel and
fall off.
 The seed contains the future plant or embryo which develops into a
seedling under appropriate conditions. This process is known as
germination.
I. Reproduction in Human Beings:
Changes that take place in our body during puberty are as follows:
Some of these changes are common to both boys and girls:
1. We begin to notice thick hair growing in new parts of the body such
as armpits and the genital area between the thighs, which can also
become darker in colour.
2. Thinner hair can also appear on legs and arms, as well as on the face.
3. The skin frequently becomes oily and we might begin to develop
pimples.
4. We begin to be conscious and aware of both our own bodies and
those of others in new ways.
II. On the other hand, there are also changes taking place that are different
between boys and girls.
1. In girls, breast size begins to increase, with darkening of the skin of the
nipples at the tips of the breasts.
2. Also, girls begin to menstruate at around this time.
3. Boys begin to have new thick hair growth on the face and their voices
begin to crack.
4. Further, the penis occasionally begins to become enlarged and erect,
either in daydreams or at night.
 The physical changes during puberty happen gradually over months or
years.
 These changes don’t occur at the same time or age for everyone.
 Some people mature earlier or faster, while others do so slowly.
 Each change (like facial hair in boys) develops step by step, not all at
once.
 There are individual differences in how these changes appear — just like
we have different facial features.
 All these variations are part of the body’s process of sexual maturation.
 Why does the body show sexual maturation at this age?
1. The creation of germ-cells to participate in sexual reproduction is
another specialised function.
 2. Human beings also develop special tissues for this purpose.
3. However, while the body of the individual organism is growing to its
adult size, the resources of the body are mainly directed at achieving
this growth.
4. While that is happening, the maturation of the reproductive tissue is not
likely to be a major priority.
5. Thus, as the rate of general body growth begins to slow down,
reproductive tissues begin to mature. This period during adolescence is
called puberty.

 We must remember that the sexual mode of reproduction means

that germ-cells from two individuals have to join together.
 This can happen by the external release of germ-cells from the
bodies of individuals.
 Or it can happen by two individuals joining their bodies together for
internal transfer of germ-cells for fusion, as happens in many
animals.
 If animals are to participate in this process of mating, their state of
sexual maturity must be identifiable by other individuals.
 Many changes during puberty, such as new hair-growth patterns, are
signals that sexual maturation is taking place.

Male Reproductive System:

 The formation of germ-cells or sperms takes place in the testes.

 These are located outside the abdominal cavity in scrotum because
sperm formation requires a lower temperature than the normal body
temperature.
 In addition to regulating the formation of sperms, testes brings about
changes in appearance seen in boys at the time of puberty by secreting
the hormone testosterone.
 The sperms formed are delivered through the vas deferens which unites
with a tube coming from the urinary bladder.
 The urethra thus forms a common passage for both the sperms and
urine.
 Along the path of the vas deferens, glands like the prostate and the
seminal vesicles add their secretions so that the sperms are now in a
fluid which makes their transport easier and this fluid also provides
nutrition.
  The sperms are tiny bodies that consist of mainly genetic material and a
long tail that helps them to move towards the female germ-cell.

Female Reproductive System:

 The female germ-cells or eggs are made in the ovaries. They are also
responsible for the production of some hormones
 When a girl is born, the ovaries already contain thousands of immature
eggs. On reaching puberty, some of these start maturing. One egg is
produced every month by one of the ovaries.
 The egg is carried from the ovary to the womb through a thin oviduct or
fallopian tube.
 The two oviducts unite into an elastic bag-like structure known as the
uterus. The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix.
 The sperms enter through the vaginal passage during sexual intercourse.
They travel upwards and reach the oviduct where they may encounter
the egg.
 The fertilised egg (zygote) starts dividing and form a ball of cells or
embryo. The embryo is implanted in the lining of the uterus where they
continue to grow and develop organs to become foetus.
 The mother’s body is designed to undertake the development of the
child. Hence the uterus prepares itself every month to receive and
nurture the growing embryo.
 The lining thickens and is richly supplied with blood to nourish the
growing embryo.
 The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a
special tissue called placenta. This is a disc which is embedded in the
uterine wall. It contains villi on the embryo’s side of the tissue.
 On the mother’s side are blood spaces, which surround the villi. This
provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the
mother to the embryo.
 The developing embryo will also generate waste substances which can
be removed by transferring them into the mother’s blood through the
placenta.
 The development of the child inside the mother’s body takes
approximately nine months. The child is born as a result of rhythmic
contractions of the muscles in the uterus.

What happens when egg is not fertilized?

 If the egg is not fertilised, it lives for about one day.

  Since the ovary releases one egg every month, the uterus also prepares
itself every month to receive a fertilised egg.
 Thus its lining becomes thick and spongy. This would be required for
nourishing the embryo if fertilisation had taken place.
 Now, however, this lining is not needed any longer. So, the lining slowly
breaks and comes out through the vagina as blood and mucous.
 This cycle takes place roughly every month and is known as
menstruation. It usually lasts for about two to eight days.

Reproductive Health:

 Diseases can be sexually transmitted. These include bacterial infections

such as gonorrhoea and syphilis, and viral infections such as warts and
HIV-AIDS.
 Using a covering, called a condom, for the penis during sex helps to
prevent transmission of many of these infections to some extent.
 many ways have been devised to avoid pregnancy These contraceptive
methods fall in a number of categories.:

1. One category is the creation of a mechanical barrier so that sperm does

not reach the egg. Condoms on the penis or similar coverings worn in
the vagina can serve this purpose
2. Another category of contraceptives acts by changing the hormonal
balance of the body so that eggs are not released and fertilisation cannot
occur. These drugs commonly need to be taken orally as pills. However,
since they change hormonal balances, they can cause side-effects too
3. ther contraceptive devices such as the loop or the copper-T are placed in
the uterus to prevent pregnancy. Again, they can cause side effects due
to irritation of the uterus.
4. If the vas deferens in the male is blocked, sperm transfer will be
prevented. If the fallopian tube in the female is blocked, the egg will not
be able to reach the uterus.
5. In both cases fertilisation will not take place. Surgical methods
(Vasectomy and tubectomy) can be used to create such blocks. While
surgical methods are safe in the long run, surgery itself can cause
infections and other problems if not performed properly.

 Surgery can also be used for removal of unwanted pregnancies.

INTEXT PG 126
Q1 How is the process of pollination different from fertilisation?

Pollination Fertilization
1. The process of transfer of pollen 1. Fertilization is the fusion of male
grains from the anther to stigma is known and female gametes to form
as pollination. zygote.
2. It takes place on the stigma of either the
2. It takes place inside an ovule.
same flower or a different flower.
3. External agents like wind, insects etc.
3. No external agent is required.
are required.
4. It is a physical process. 4. It is a biological process.
5. It occurs in both plants and
5. It occurs only in seeds.
animals of various types.

Q2 Along the path of the vas deferens, glands like the prostate and the seminal
vesicles add their secretions so that the sperms are now in a fluid which makes
their transport easier and this fluid also provides nutrition.

Q3 What are the changes seen in girls at the time of puberty?

Ans - In girls, breast size begins to increase, with darkening of the skin of the
nipples at the tips of the breasts. Also, girls begin to menstruate at around this
time.

Q4 How does the embryo get nourishment inside the mother’s body?

 The mother’s body is designed to undertake the development of the

child. Hence the uterus prepares itself every month to receive and
nurture the growing embryo.
 The lining thickens and is richly supplied with blood to nourish the
growing embryo.
 The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a
special tissue called placenta. This is a disc which is embedded in the
uterine wall. It contains villi on the embryo’s side of the tissue.
 On the mother’s side are blood spaces, which surround the villi. This
provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the
mother to the embryo.
 The developing embryo will also generate waste substances which can
be removed by transferring them into the mother’s blood through the
placenta.
Q5 If a woman is using a copper-T, will it help in protecting her from sexually
transmitted diseases?

Ans : No, a Copper-T (or copper IUD) does not protect against sexually
transmitted diseases (STDs) because it does not act as a barrier to prevent the
direct contact of bodily fluids during intercourse. It is a form of contraception
that works by making the uterus an inhospitable environment for sperm,
preventing fertilization and implantation. The only method that protects
against both pregnancy and STDs is the use of condoms.

Exercise:

1. What are the advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual

reproduction?

Ans i] In sexual reproduction, more variations are produced. Thus, it ensures

survival of species in a population.
ii] The newly formed individual has characteristics of both the parents.
iii] Variations are more viable in sexual mode than in asexual one. This is
because in asexual reproduction, DNA has to function inside the inherited
cellular apparatus.
iv] As there are genetic variations, evolution is possible and new species evolve.

2. What are the functions performed by the testis in human beings?

Ans - The formation of germ-cells or sperms takes place in the testes. In

addition to regulating the formation of sperms, testes brings about changes
in appearance seen in boys at the time of puberty by secreting the hormone
testosterone.

3. Why does menstruation occur?

(what happens when the egg is not fertilized section)

4. What are the different methods of contraception?

Ans-

 By using condoms or similar covering in vagina.

 By taking contraceptive pills which change the hormonal of body and
fertilisation does not occur.
 By using some other contraceptive devices such as loops or copper T.
  Surgical methods to block vas deferens in male and fallopian tube in
females.

5. How are the modes for reproduction different in unicellular and

multicellular organisms?

Ans - Unicellular organisms primarily reproduce asexually through methods

like binary fission or budding, as a single cell performs all functions, including
reproduction. In contrast, multicellular organisms can reproduce both asexually
(e.g., vegetative propagation) and sexually, the latter involving specialized
reproductive cells and organs.

Unicellular organisms

 Mode: Primarily asexual.

 Process: A single cell divides into new, identical daughter cells.
 Examples:
o Binary fission: A parent cell splits into two identical daughter cells
(e.g., bacteria, amoeba).
o Budding: A new organism develops from an outgrowth or bud on
the parent's body (e.g., yeast).
o Other methods: Multiple fission and fragmentation.

Multicellular organisms

 Mode: Can be asexual or sexual.

 Process:
o Asexual: A single organism reproduces without the fusion of
gametes (e.g., vegetative propagation in plants, budding in some
animals).
o Sexual: Involves the fusion of gametes (sperm and egg) from two
parents to create a new organism, leading to genetic variation.
 Examples:
o Asexual: Spores in plants, vegetative propagation.
o Sexual: Reproduction in humans and other vertebrates.

6. How does reproduction help in providing stability to populations of

species?

Ans - Reproduction provides population stability by ensuring new individuals

replace older ones, keeping the birth and death rates balanced. It also generates
genetic variation, especially through sexual reproduction, which allows species
to adapt to environmental changes and survive in the long term.
7. What could be the reasons for adopting contraceptive methods?

Ans –

 The sexual act always has the potential to lead to pregnancy. Pregnancy
will make major demands on the body and the mind of the woman, and if
she is not ready for it, her health will be adversely affected. Therefore,
many ways have been devised to avoid pregnancy.
 The possible health consequences of having sex. Diseases can be
transmitted from person to person in a variety of ways.
 Therefore, some degree of sexual maturation does not necessarily mean
that the body or the mind is ready for sexual acts or for having and
bringing up children.