Chapter 4

INTEGUMENTARY
SYSTEM
 A. The Skin

Skin Functions
• Protects deeper tissues from:
• Mechanical damage • Aids in heat regulation

• Chemical damage • Aids in excretion of urea

and uric acid
• Bacterial damage
• Synthesizes vitamin D
• Thermal damage
• Ultraviolet radiation
• Desiccation
 A. The Skin
Cells of the Epidermis
1. Keratinocytes
2. Melanocytes
3. Dendritic cells
4. Tactile cells
 A. The Skin
Cells of the Epidermis
Keratinocytes
• produce keratin, the fibrous protein that helps
give the epidermis its protective properties
• most epidermal cells are keratinocytes
• arise from the stratum basale
• undergo almost continuous mitosis in response to prompting by
epidermal growth factor, a peptide produced by various cells
throughout the body
• are pushed upward by the production of new cells beneath them
• make the keratin that eventually dominates their cell contents
 A. The Skin
Cells of the Epidermis
Keratinocytes
• Millions of dead keratinocytes rub off every day, giving us a
totally new epidermis every 25 to 45 days
• cell production and keratin
formation is accelerated in body
areas regularly subjected to friction,
such as the hands and feet
• Persistent friction (from a poorly
fitting shoe, for example) causes a
thickening of the epidermis called a
callus.
 A. The Skin
Cells of the Epidermis
Melanocytes
• the spidershaped epithelial cells that synthesize the pigment
melanin
• accumulates in membrane-bound granules called melanosomes
• Melanin are transferred to nearby keratinocytes
• the melanin granules accumulate on the superficial, or “sunny,” side
of the keratinocyte nucleus, forming a pigment shield that protects
the nucleus from the damaging effects of ultraviolet (UV) radiation in
sunlight
 A. The Skin
Cells of the Epidermis
Dendritic cells
• star-shaped dendritic cells arise from
bone marrow and migrate to the
epidermis
• also called Langerhans cells
• ingest foreign substances and are key
activators of our immune system
 A. The Skin
Cells of the Epidermis
Tactile (Merkel) cells
• present at the epidermal-
dermal junction
• shaped like a spiky
hemisphere
• each tactile cell is intimately
associated with a disclike
sensory nerve ending
• The combination, called a
tactile or Merkel disc,
functions as a sensory
receptor for touch.
 A. The Skin

Two distinct layers:

[Link]- made up of
stratified squamous
epithelium, hardened by
keratin

2. Dermis- making up the

bulk of the skin, is a tough,
leathery layer composed
mostly of fibrous connective
tissue, vascularized
* The subcutaneous tissue just deep to the
skin is known as the hypodermis
 A. The Skin
Layers of the Epidermis

1. Stratum basale
2. Stratum spinosum
3. Stratum granulosum
4. Stratum lucidum
5. Stratum corneum
 A. The Skin
Layers of the Epidermis

1. Stratum basale
• deepest epidermal layer
• consists of a single row of stem cells—a
continually renewing cell population
• Each time one of these basal cells
divides, one daughter cell is pushed into
the cell layer just above to begin its
specialization into a mature keratinocyte
• 10-25% are melanocytes
 A. The Skin
Layers of the Epidermis

2. Stratum spinosum
• contain a weblike system of
intermediate filaments, mainly
tension-resisting bundles of
pre-keratin filaments, which
span their cytosol to attach to
desmosomes
Scattered among the
• the keratinocytes in this layer
keratinocytes are melanin
appear to have spines
granules and dendritic cells
 A. The Skin
Layers of the Epidermis

3. Stratum granulosum
• consists of four to six cell
layers in which keratinocyte
appearance changes
drastically
• process of keratinization
begins
• Nutrient-poor layer
 A. The Skin
Layers of the Epidermis

3. Stratum granulosum
• Cells flatten, their nuclei and organelles
begin to disintegrate, and they
accumulate two types of granules:
1. keratohyaline granules- help to form
keratin in the upper layers (darkly stained)
2. lamellar granules-contain a water-
resistant glycolipid that prevents water loss
across the epidermis
 A. The Skin
Layers of the Epidermis

4. Stratum lucidum
• visible only in thick skin
• consists of two or three
rows of clear, flat, dead
keratinocytes with indistinct
boundaries
 A. The Skin
Dermis
• strong, flexible connective
tissue
• Cells types: fibroblasts,
macrophages, and
occasional mast cells and
white blood cells
• has a rich supply of nerve
fibers, blood vessels, and
lymphatic vessels
• two layers, the papillary and
reticular
 A. The Skin
Dermis
1. Papillary layer
• Dermal papillae- peglike
projections
• contain capillary loops
• house free nerve endings
(pain receptors) and touch
receptors called tactile or
Meissner’s corpuscles
Dermal papillae
lie atop larger
mounds called
dermal ridges,
which in turn cause
the overlying
epidermis to form
epidermal ridges.
 A. The Skin

Scanning electron micrograph

of friction ridges (epidermal
ridges topping the deeper
dermal papillary ridges). Notice
the sweat duct openings along
the crests of the ridges, which
are responsible for fingerprints.
 A. The Skin
Dermis
2. Reticular layer
• about 80% of the thickness
of the dermis
• coarse, irregularly
arranged, dense fibrous
connective tissue
 Flexure line- dermal folds
A. The Skin that occur at or near joints,
where the dermis is tightly
secured to deeper
Dermis structures.
2. Reticular layer
Cleavage (tension) lines-
orientation of collagen fibers
in the dermis, and are
generally parallel to the
orientation of the underlying
muscle fibers
Cleavage lines are important to surgeons
because when an incision is made parallel to
these lines, the skin gapes less and heals
more readily.
 A. The Skin
Skin Color
Three pigments contribute to skin color:
1. Melanin- Yellow, brown or black pigments;
produced by melanocytes
• Melanin production depends upon genetic and exposure to
sunlight
2. Carotene- Orange-yellow pigment from some vegetables
3. Hemoglobin- Red coloring from blood cells in dermis capillaries
• Oxygen content determines the extent of red coloring
• Cyanosis - Low oxygen content creates a bluish appearance
 A. The Skin
Skin Color
Many alterations in skin color signal certain disease states or even emotional states:
Redness, or embarrassment (blushing), fever, hypertension, inflammation,
erythema or allergy
fear, anger, and certain other
Pallor, or blanching
types of emotional stress; may also signify anemia or low blood pressure.
Jaundice or yellow usually signifies a liver disorder, in which yellow bile
cast pigments accumulate in the blood and are deposited in body tissues
a sign of Addison’s disease; or a pituitary gland tumors that inappropriately
Bronzing
secrete melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
Black-and-blue
hematomas
marks, or bruises
 B. Appendages of the Skin

Skin appendages include:

1. Hair and hair follicles
2. Nails
3. Sweat glands
4. Sebaceous (oil) glands
 B. Appendages of the Skin
1. Hair and hair follicles

Functions:
• sense insects on the skin before they bite or sting us
• hair on the scalp guards head against physical
trauma, heat loss, and sunlight.
• eyelashes shield the eyes, and nose hairs filter large
particles like lint and insects from the air we inhale
 B. Appendages of the Skin
1. Hair and hair follicles
Structure of a Hair
•Produced by hair bulb
•Consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells
Vs soft keratin (epidermis)
•tougher and more durable
•individual cells do not flake off
•Melanocytes provide pigment for hair color
 B. Appendages of the Skin
1. Hair and hair follicles
Structure of a Hair
• Central medulla
• consists of large cells and air spaces
• the only part of the hair that contains soft keratin
(absent in fine hairs)
• Cortex surrounds medulla
• several layers of flattened cells
• Cuticle on outside of cortex
• single layer of cells
• overlapping one another like shingles on a roof
 B. Appendages of the Skin
1. Hair and hair follicles
Structure of a Hair Follicle
• hair bulb- the deep end of the follicle
• hair follicle receptor, or root hair plexus-
knot of sensory nerve endings wrapping
each hair bulb
• hair papilla- contains a knot of capillaries
that supplies nutrients to the growing hair
and signals it to grow
• hair bulge- actively dividing area of the hair
bulb that produces the hair
• arrector pili muscle- pulls the hair follicle upright and dimples the skin surface to
produce goose bumps in response to cold temperatures or fear
B. Appendages of the Skin
 B. Appendages of the Skin
1. Hair and hair follicles
Types and Growth of Hair
• vellus hair- pale, fine body hair of children and adult
females
• terminal hair, coarser, longer hair of the eyebrows and
scalp, also darker
• terminal hairs grow in response to the stimulating effects of
androgens (of which testosterone is the most important)
Hair Cycle
 B. Appendages of the Skin
1. Hair and hair follicles
Thinning and Baldness
• Alopecia- faster shedding of hair leading to hair thinning and some
degree of baldness
• By age 35, noticeable hair loss occurs in 40% of men, and by age 60
that number jumps to 85%.
• Male pattern baldness, is a genetically determined, sex-influenced condition
• minoxidil (Rogaine), a drug used to reduce high blood pressure, has the
interesting side effect in some bald men (and balding women) of stimulating
hair regrowth
 B. Appendages of the Skin
1. Hair and hair follicles
Thinning and Baldness
• Factors: acutely high fever, surgery, severe emotional trauma, and
certain drugs (excessive vitamin A, some antidepressants and blood
thinners, anabolic steroids, and most chemotherapy drugs)
• Protein-deficient diets and lactation lead to hair thinning
• alopecia areata, the immune system attacks the follicles and the hair
falls out in patches
 B. Appendages of the Skin
2. Nails

• scalelike modification of the epidermis

• clear protective covering on the dorsal surface of the
distal part of a finger or toe
• useful as “tools” to help pick up small objects or
scratch an itch
• nails (like hairs) contain hard keratin
 B. Appendages of the Skin

2. Nails
Structure
•Free edge
•Body
•Root of nail
•Nail matrix-responsible for nail growth
•Eponychium – proximal nail fold that
projects onto the nail body
 B. Appendages of the Skin

2. Nails
Structure
•Lunule- the region that lies over the
thick nail matrix appears as a white
crescent
•nail folds- skin folds overlapping
proximal and lateral borders of the nail
•cuticle or eponychium-proximal nail fold
projecting onto the nail body
•Hyponychium- free edge of the nail
where dirt and debris tend to accumulate
 B. Appendages of the Skin

2. Nails
nail appearance can help diagnose certain conditions

yellow-tinged nails may indicate a respiratory or thyroid gland disorder

thickened yellow
nails
may signal a fungus infection
outward concavity
of the nail
may signal an iron deficiency

horizontal lines
(Beau’s lines)
may hint of malnutrition.
 B. Appendages of the Skin

3. Sweat glands
• Widely distributed in skin
• Two types
• Eccrine
• Apocrine
 B. Appendages of the Skin

3. Sweat glands
Eccrine
• also called merocrine
sweat glands
• abundant on the palms,
soles of the feet, and
forehead
• simple, coiled, tubular
gland
• duct extends to open in a
funnelshaped pore at the
skin surface
 B. Appendages of the Skin

The Sweat
• a hypotonic filtrate of the blood that passes
through the secretory cells of the sweat
glands
• released by exocytosis
• 99% water
• with some salts (mostly sodium chloride),
vitamin C, antibodies, a microbe-killing Regulation: sympathetic
peptide dubbed dermcidin division of the autonomic
• traces of metabolic wastes (urea, uric acid, nervous system regulates
and ammonia) sweating
• pH between 4 and 6.
 B. Appendages of the Skin

3. Sweat glands
Apocrine
• largely confined to the axillary and anogenital areas
• Produce sweat, plus fatty substances and proteins
• Most with ducts that empty into hair follicles
• Glands are activated at puberty
• activated by sympathetic nerve fibers during pain
and stress
 B. Appendages of the Skin

3. Sweat glands
Modified Apocrine Glands
• Ceruminous glands -found in the lining of the
external ear canal
• secretion mixes with sebum produced by nearby
sebaceous glands to form a sticky, bitter substance
called cerumen, or earwax
• Mammary glands- secrete milk
 B. Appendages of the Skin

4. Sebaceous (oil) glands

• simple branched alveolar glands
• found all over the body except in the thick skin of
the palms and soles
• secrete an oily substance called sebum
• Arrector pili contractions force sebum out of the
hair follicles to the skin surface
 B. Appendages of the Skin

4. Sebaceous (oil) glands

Homeostatic imbalance
• Whitehead- accumulated sebum blocks a
sebaceous gland duct
• Blackhead- oxidized and dried whitehead (darkens)
• Acne- active inflammation of the sebaceous glands
accompanied by “pimples” (pustules or cysts)
• caused by bacterial infection, particularly by
staphylococcus
• Seborrhea- overactive sebaceous glands can
cause, sloughed off oily scales
 C. Functions of the Integumentary System
1. Protection
• Chemical Barrier- (acid mantle, dermcidin in sweat,
bactericidal substances in sebum, natural antibiotics
called defensins- punch hole in bacteria)
• Physical Barriers
• Biological Barriers
2. Body Temperature Regulation
3. Metabolic Functions
4. Blood Reservoir
5. Excretion
 C. Functions of the Integumentary System

1. Protection- Chemical Barrier

• acid mantle
• dermcidin in sweat
• bactericidal substances in sebum
• natural antibiotics called defensins- punch hole in
bacteria
 C. Functions of the Integumentary System
1. Protection-Physical Barriers
Substances that do penetrate the skin in limited amounts include
• Lipid-soluble substances, such as oxygen, carbon dioxide,
fatsoluble
• vitamins (A, D, E, and K), and steroids (estrogens)
• Oleoresins of certain plants, such as poison ivy and poison oak
• Organic solvents, such as acetone, dry-cleaning fluid, and paint
thinner, which dissolve the cell lipids
• Salts of heavy metals, such as lead and mercury
• Selected drugs (nitroglycerine, nicotine, seasickness
medications)
C. Functions of the Integumentary System

1. Protection- Biological Barriers

• Dendritic cells of the epidermis-act as
antigen “presenters.”
• Dermal macrophages
• DNA-absorb UV radiation and transfer it
to the atomic nuclei
 C. Functions of the Integumentary System
2. Body Temperature Regulation
 C. Functions of the Integumentary System
3. Cutaneous Sensation
cutaneous receptors are classified as exteroceptors
Tactile (Meissner’s) allow us to become aware of a caress or the feel of our clothing
corpuscles & tactile discs against our skin
Lamellar (Pacinian) alert us to bumps or contacts
corpuscles involving deep pressure
report on wind blowing through our hair and a playful tug
Hair follicle receptors
on a pigtail
Free nerve sense painful stimuli
endings (irritating chemicals, extreme heat or cold, and others)
 C. Functions of the Integumentary System
4. Metabolic Functions
• modified cholesterol molecules are Keratinocyte enzymes can
converted to a vitamin D precursor ■ “Disarm” many cancer-
causing chemicals that
penetrate the epidermis
■ Convert some harmless
chemicals into carcinogens
■ Activate some steroid
hormones—for instance, they
can transform cortisone
applied to irritated skin
 C. Functions of the Integumentary System

5. Blood reservoir- dermal vascular supply can hold about

5% of the body’s entire blood volume
6. Excretion
Nitrogenous waste products
(ammonia, urea, and uric acid) in sweat
NaCl excretion
 D. Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin

Skin Cancer
• Cancer – abnormal cell mass
• Two types
• Benign
• Does not spread (encapsulated)
• Malignant
• Metastasized (moves) to other parts of the body
• Skin cancer is the most common type of cancer
 D. Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin

Skin Cancer
• Basal cell carcinoma
• Least malignant
• Most common type
• Arises from stratum basale
• Squamous cell carcinoma
• Arises from stratum spinosum
• Metastasizes to lymph nodes
• Early removal allows a good chance of cure
 D. Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin

Skin Cancer
• Malignant melanoma
• Most deadly of skin
cancers
• Cancer of melanocytes
• Metastasizes rapidly to lymph and blood vessels
• Detection uses ABCD rule
 D. Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin

Skin Cancer
• Detection uses ABCD rule for recognizing melanoma

•A = Asymmetry, two sides of pigmented mole do not match

•B = Border irregularity, borders of mole are not smooth
•C = Color, different colors in pigmented area
•D = Diameter, spot is larger then 6 mm in diameter
 D. Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin

Burns
• tissue damage inflicted by intense heat, electricity,
radiation, or certain chemicals
• denature cell proteins and kill cells in the affected
areas
• leads to dehydration and electrolyte imbalance, and
then renal failure (kidney shutdown) and circulatory
shock (inadequate blood circulation due to reduced
blood volume)
 D. Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin

Evaluating Burns
• Body is divided into 11 areas
for quick estimation
• Each area represents about
9%
 D. Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin

Evaluating Burns
• In general, burns are considered critical if any of
the following conditions exists:
• Over 25% of the body has second-degree burns
• Over 10% of the body has third-degree burns
• There are third-degree burns of the face, hands, or
feet
D. Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin
Evaluating Burns

only the epidermis is

damaged. Symptoms
include localized Appears gray-
redness, swelling, and white, cherry
pain. red, or
blackened,
and initially
injure the epidermis and the
upper region of the dermis.
there is
Symptoms mimic those of little or no
first-degree burns, but blisters edema; not
also appear. painful.
ANY QUESTION?