LINKING DEVICES
IESDyT 9-001 Gral. José de San Martín
Prof. Lic. Adriana Gonzalez - Prof. Natalia Grilli
01 … create a sense of
COHERENCE.
WHAT ARE
‘LINKING DEVICES’? 02
… create a LOGICAL
CONNECTION between
ideas.
03 … help to ORGANISE
your ideas.
A text containing linking devices is
much more appealing, organised, 04 … make your writing
and effective. EASIER to read.
01 TO EXPRESS THE RESULT OF SOMETHING
� It was such a dysfunctional marriage that Angela felt lonely most of the time..
� Such a failure was the marriage that they decided to split up.
These structures are similar in
meaning, but different in
construction.
“SO” can also be used be followed by a full “SUCH…THAT” + a noun phrase,
or complete clause: Long ago the sun, the “SO…THAT” + an adjective.
moon, the wind, rain, animals, and trees
were all important in their religions, so they
had festivals for them.
� Angela’s parting was so unexpected that Gilbert couldn’t believe his ears. (so… that)
� So difficult was his childhood that he had trouble making new friends as a teenager.
01 TO EXPRESS THE RESULT OF SOMETHING
They are formal.
� The boy got tired of waiting for somebody to arrive. As a result, he went to his grandma’s and asked for her help.
� He was scared of going upstairs for a blanket. Therefore / Consequently, he warmed up with the fire. (more formal)
� Having lost her lover, Angela committed suicide to rejoin him.
� After realising her happiness was gone, Angela decided to put an end to her
misery.
INVERSION
‘MAKE YOUR WRITING MORE
ACADEMIC AND APPEALING’
01 … helps us sound
more FORMAL and
WHAT IS ACADEMIC.
‘INVERSION’? 02
… helps us EMPHASISE a
particular section of the
sentence.
03 … helps us sound
more DRAMATIC.
A sentence is inverted by altering
the order of some elements. 04 … helps us LINK ideas.
01 QUESTIONS
MOST COMMON 02 TAG QUESTIONS
CASES OF INVERSION
AFTER ADVERBS OF
03 PLACE OR
DIRECTION
04 AFTER VERBS OF
REPORTING
01 AUXILIARY + SUBJECT + VERB + COMPLEMENT
� Was Ivie happy with the colonel?
� Had Ivie been writing her book in secret?
� Do they love each other?
� What did George do when he found out his wife had had an affair?
No inversion when the
question word is the
02 subject: What happened
when he came back?
� "You are hungry, aren't you?" "Yes, I am."
Remember tag questions
� He was quite good at writing, wasn’t he? are placed after declarative
sentences to continue the
� The teacher helped you, didn’t she? flow of conversation
AUXILIARY + SUBJECT
ADVERB OF PLACE ADVERB OF PLACE/DIRECTION + VERB + SUBJECT
03 / DIRECTION
+ COMPLEMENT
� Down the hill rolled the children.
When an adverb or an
� Round the corner was a nice café. adverbial expression of
place comes in the
� Up and over the gorilla climbed the wall. initial position, the
subject and the verb are
inverted.
REPORTING
04 VERBS
In direct speech, if the
quotation precedes
the reporting verb,
� “Did you read the diary? asked Sissy Miller/ Sissy Miller asked. the subject and the
reporting verb can be
� “I’ve never seen him before,” said the woman/ the woman said. inverted:
WITH A NEGATIVE
01 WORD/IDEA
02 WITH ‘WELL’, ‘MANY’, ‘SO’
IN CONDITIONAL
ACADEMIC CASES OF 03 SENTENCES
INVERSION
04 ESTABLISHED
SENTENCE PATTERNS
05 NEGATIVE
ADVERBIALS
06 WITH ‘AS’, ‘SO’,
‘NEITHER’, ‘NOR’
IN EMPHATIC SENTENCES NEGATIVE LEAD WORD + AUXILIARY +
01 WITH A NEGATIVE WORD / SUBJECT + VERB (PAST PARTICIPLE) +
IDEA COMPLEMENT
� STANDARD FORM: They had rarely spoken to each other.
� INVERTED FORM: Rarely had they spoken to each other.
These are usually used with
past perfect or present perfect.
� STANDARD FORM: I have never heard a weaker excuse! / She has never been so frightened!
� INVERTED FORM: Never have I heard a weaker excuse! / Never has she been so frightened!
IN EMPHATIC SENTENCE NEGATIVE LEAD WORD + AUXILIARY +
01 WITH A NEGATIVE WORD / SUBJECT + VERB (PAST PARTICIPLE) +
IDEA COMPLEMENT
� STANDARD FORM: The team has seldom given a worse performance.
� INVERTED FORM: Seldom has the team given a worse performance.
These are usually used with past
perfect or present perfect.
� STANDARD FORM: I had barely / scarcely believed what had happened.
� INVERTED FORM: Barely / Scarcely had I believed what had happened.
IN EMPHATIC SENTENCE NEGATIVE LEAD WORD + SUBJECT + VERB +
01 WITH A NEGATIVE WORD / COMPLEMENT / AUXILIARY + SUBJECT +
IDEA VERB + COMPLEMENT
� STANDARD FORM: It wasn’t until he realised what had happened that he turned to his
grandmother.
� INVERTED FORM: Not until he realised what had happened, did he turn to his
grandmother.
� STANDARD FORM: The train had hardly left the station when there was an explosion.
� INVERTED FORM: Hardly had the train left the station when there was an explosion.
NEGATIVE LEAD WORD + AUXILIARY + SUBJECT + VERB (past participle) +
COMPLEMENT
WITH WORDS SUCH AS WELL + AUXILIARY + SUBJECT + VERB +
02 ‘WELL’, ‘MANY’, ‘SO’ COMPLEMENT
• STANDARD FORM: I well remember the moment I was alone and cold.
• INVERTED FORM: Well do I remember the moment I was alone and cold.
• STANDARD FORM: I was so surprised to learn the truth!
• INVERTED FORM: So surprised was I to learn the truth!
SO + ADJECTIVE + VERB + SUBJECT + COMPLEMENT
WITH WORDS SUCH AS SUCH / MANY + VERB + SUBJECT +
02 ‘SUCH’, ‘MANY’ COMPLEMENT
• STANDARD FORM: The force was such that trees were uprooted.
• INVERTED FORM: Such was the force of the storm that trees were uprooted.
“SUCH” used with be
means so much/so great.
• STANDARD FORM: I’ve read stories about it many times, but never believed them.
• INVERTED FORM: Many is the time I’ve read stories about it, but never believed them.
• STANDARD FORM: There were many reasons that led Nicole to make such decision.
• INVERTED FORM: Many were the reasons that led Nicole to make such decision.
WITH ‘SHOULD’, ‘WERE’,
03 ‘HAD’ IN CONDITIONAL SHOULD + SUBJECT + VERB + COMPLEMENT
SENTENCES
• STANDARD FORM: If you hear anything, let me know.
• INVERTED FORM: Should you hear anything, let me know.
• STANDARD FORM: If he has cheated, he will have to be punished.
• INVERTED FORM: Should he have cheated, he will have to be punished.
WITH ‘SHOULD’, ‘WERE’,
03 ‘HAD’ IN (2nd and 3rd) WERE + SUBJECT + VERB + COMPLEMENT
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
• STANDARD FORM: If they were to escape, there would be an outcry. (2nd conditional)
• INVERTED FORM: Were they to escape, there would be an outcry ( = commotion).
• STANDARD FORM: If the police had found out, I would have been in trouble. (3rd conditional)
• INVERTED FORM: Were the police to have found out, I would have been in trouble.
WITH ‘SHOULD’, ‘WERE’,
HAD + SUBJECT + VERB (PAST PARTICIPLE) +
03 ‘HAD’ IN (3rd)
COMPLEMENT
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
• STANDARD FORM: If I had known, I would have protested strongly.
• INVERTED FORM: Had I known, I would have protested strongly.
• STANDARD FORM: If they hadn’t argued at the party, she wouldn’t have left.
• INVERTED FORM: Hadn’t they argued at the party, she would not have left.
Had they not argued at the party, she would not have left.
IN ‘ESTABLISHED NOT ONLY + AUXILIARY + SUBJECT + VERB (BASE) +
04 SENTENCE PATTERNS’ COMPLEMENT / … BUT ALSO + VERB +
COMPLEMENT
• STANDARD FORM: He failed to report the accident and denied that he had been driving
the car.
• INVERTED FORM: Not only did he fail to report the accident but also he denied that he
had been driving the car.
• STANDARD FORM: He did not know much about his sister’s situation.
• INVERTED FORM: Little did he know about his sister’s situation.
“LITTLE” also has a negative or
restrictive meaning (specifies a
particular instance) in this sense.
LITTLE + AUXILIARY + SUBJECT + VERB (BASE) + COMPLEMENT
IN ‘ESTABLISHED LITTLE + AUXILIARY + SUBJECT + VERB (BASE)
04 SENTENCE PATTERNS’ + COMPLEMENT
• STANDARD FORM: The government has no idea what the results will be.
• INVERTED FORM: Little does the government know what the results will be.
• STANDARD FORM: The team was no sooner back on the field than it started raining.
• INVERTED FORM: No sooner was the team back on the field than it started raining.
Although “NO SOONER” is usually
followed by past perfect, it can
also be followed by past simple. NO SOONER + AUXILIARY + SUBJECT + VERB +
COMPLEMENT
AFTER ‘NEGATIVE NEGATIVE ADVERBIAL + SUBJECT + VERB +
05 ADVERBIALS’ COMPLEMENT
• STANDARD FORM: You can only see police officers without guns in Britain.
• INVERTED FORM: Only in Britain can you see police officers without guns.
• STANDARD FORM: You will only be able to see the spots on the sun if you look
through this dark glass.
• INVERTED FORM: Only if you look through this dark glass will you be able to see the
spots on the sun.
AFTER ‘NEGATIVE NEGATIVE ADVERBIAL + S + V + C /
05 ADVERBIALS’ … AUXILIARY + S + V + C
• STANDARD FORM: He only looked for his passport when he arrived at the airport.
• INVERTED FORM: Only after he arrived at the airport did he look for his passport.
• STANDARD FORM: The teacher was able to control the class when there was threatening
extreme physical violence.
• INVERTED FORM: Only by threatening extreme physical violence was the teacher able to
control the class.
NEGATIVE ADVERBIAL + V + C / … AUXILIARY + S + V + C
AFTER ‘NEGATIVE NEGATIVE ADVERBIAL + VERB + SUBJECT +
05 ADVERBIALS’ COMPLEMENT
• STANDARD FORM: They are on no condition to open fire without warning.
• INVERTED FORM: On no condition are they to open fire without warning.
These include under no circumstances, on
no account, at no time, in no way, on no
condition, not until, not only … (but also)
• STANDARD FORM: I didn’t notice that I had the wrong umbrella until I got home.
• INVERTED FORM: Not until I got home did I notice that I had the wrong umbrella.
NEGATIVE ADVERBIAL + S + V + C / … AUXILIARY + S + V + C
‘AS’, ‘SO’, ‘NEITHER’, AS / SO / NEITHER / NOR + VERB + SUBJECT +
06 ‘NOR’ ‘MAY’ COMPLEMENT
We were short of money, as were most people in our neighbourhood.
I thought, as did my colleagues, that the recession would soon be over.
She works long hours, as do most doctors.
May your journey be a good one.
• I don’t like parties and neither does my wife.
• I am going home. B: So am I. (= I am also going home)
• He was surprised, and so were we.
• I don’t like meat. B: Neither do I. (= I don’t like meat either)
• A: Bob wasn’t working. B: Nor was Bill. (= Bill was not working These
either)
are used in
‘echoing’ statements
• A: I don’t speak French. B: Nor do I. (repetition), agreeing or
disagreeing.
ION
INVERSION
‘MAKE YOUR WRITING MORE
ACADEMIC AND APPEALING’