A building represents a structure usually consisting of roof, walls, floor(s) and openings (windows and doors)

where activities can be permanently run.

The International Code Council uses two indicators for describing the buildings: (a) use and occupancy and (b)
type of construction.

On average, people spend around 80–90% of their lives inside buildings. Therefore, buildings have to provide
a healthy and comfortable environment for humans.

Buildings account for approximately 19% of all global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the world , and
about 50% of global final energy demand.

However, the amount of energy consumed depends not only on the criteria set for the indoor environment and
applied technology but also on the behavior of occupants.

To reduce the energy consumption and to maintain a healthy and comfortable indoor environment, a balance
between comfort and energy, cooperation between building design, building climate control and occupant
needs have to be established.
Considering the use and occupancy, the categories of buildings synthetically presented in Table 1.1 were identified.
The high level of chemical activity in the cells
that maintain the human body temperature at a
temperature of 37.0 C while performing the
necessary bodily functions is called the
metabolism.

In simple terms, metabolism refers to the

burning of foods such as carbohydrates, fat,
and protein.
Indoor Environment Control (IEC)

Most of the indoors get polluted due to poor operational practices of both free running and
air conditional buildings.

IEQ refers to the quality of a building’s indoor environment whereas the health and well-
being of building occupants should be promoted.

Subjective perception of comfort of occupants in a room depends on many factors:

“temperature, humidity and air circulation, smell and respiration, acoustic factors, sight and
colors ect, building vibrations, special factors (solar gain), safety factors, economic factors,
unpredictable risks and design”.
Indoor environmental control

People spend most of their time (around 90% of our time in the indoor environment)
indoors either at home or at work. If the indoor environment is polluted, the
occupants may experience number of possible health conditions such as sneezing,
fatigue, headache, dizziness, nausea, irritability, and respiratory diseases as asthma.
Also, long term exposure into the pollutants can cause more serious health effects.
Therefore it is very important to maintain a high degree of hygienic level and safety
inside all types of buildings by achieving a proper design and maintaining an
adequate ventilation system in the indoor environment. Therefore, research and
development on building indoor environment is necessary for human comfort.
➢ Climate Change: addresses the impacts that climate change may have on the indoor
environment and the resulting health effects.
➢ Climate change has the potential to affect the indoor environment because conditions inside
buildings are influenced by conditions outside them.
➢ Approximately 50 per cent of our energy use, and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions into the
atmosphere, are from the use of energy for heating, cooling and lighting buildings.
➢ Around 25–30 percent is used in transport, while the remainder is used for industrial
processing.

➢ While the use of renewable sources of energy can contribute to reduced emissions. Once
the demand is lowered, then more carbon-efficient sources of supply can be considered.
 Energy use in building
The energy used in building comes from a number of sources; fuels, such as oil, coal, gas and
electricity, and ‘free’ sources, such as solar radiation and people, which supply light and heat.
All this energy is eventually converted to heat and leaves the building via several routes:
● Fans
● Infiltration and ventilation losses
● Pumps
● Flue losses
● Cooking appliances
● Cooling tower losses. ● Refrigerators

● Heating equipment ● Small power (computers, copiers, fax machines, home

entertainment etc)
● Lighting
● Larger items of machinery
● Cooling equipment
● Lifts and escalators.
Energy performance of building depends on:
 Factors of energy use in building
Building energy is a very wide field which is affected by a variety of factors on many scales. The highest impact
on energy consumption is caused by heating and cooling loads, and some of these factors. In general, building
energy consumption is mainly influenced by six factors:

1. Climate: affects the heating and cooling loads

Site of the building, and the exposure of the building to the sun
Regional climate in which the building exists, and its influence on wind speed and direction, temperature,
humidity levels and so on.

2. Building envelope characteristics (the material of the building)

3. Energy systems characteristics (Building equipment)
4. Operation and maintenance
5. Indoor environmental quality provided (comfort conditions)
6. Occupant activities and behavior
Fig. Six influencing factors on building energy use.

Source: IEO
These factors may be organized into two groups of factors that can be classified as 1)
physical and 2) human influenced.

1) The origin of the technical and physical factors, are related to building envelope, climate,
building service systems, and other issues that can not be easily changed during building
operation by humans. Even though they can be changed during building operation, but they
are fixed physical parameters.

The physical and technical factors give a background for the estimation of building energy
performance.

2) Factors that can be changed and are defined by humans and building occupants are
classified as human-influenced factors. By adding the human factors into the picture of
building energy use, we come to the actual energy use.
In addition to the six influencing factors on building energy use, there is one
separate factor called social factor.

Social aspects cover a huge field of parameters such as local habits on building
use, energy price, dominating energy source in the certain area, the energy-
related attitude of occupants. These influence also living standard and
possibility of building users to pay energy bills or invest in energy efficiency
measures.
 Developing a new building

➢When developing a new building, data for the human-influenced factors

may be found in standards or required by a new building owner.

➢However, in general, when observing an existing building, these human

factors may variate a lot and influence strongly the actual building
functioning and actual energy use.

➢Finally, when the building energy performance is calculated considering the

standardized input data, the calculated building energy performance is
obtained.
 Indoor environmental quality (IEQ)

Indoor environmental quality (IEQ) is one of the most important characteristics of

building/green buildings intended for occupancy/human occupancy.

The indoor environment in any building is a result of the interaction between the site, climate,
building system (original design and later modifications in the structure and mechanical
systems), construction techniques, contaminant sources (building materials and furnishings,
moisture, processes and activities within the building, and outdoor sources), and building
occupants.

The four major aspects of indoor environmental quality are indoor air quality (IAQ), thermal
conditions, illumination, and acoustics.
Adverse Impacts of Poor IEQ

➢ Poor IEQ can have an adverse impact on human health and performance.

➢Poor building design and management, as well as the presence of harmful

substances (in furniture, carpets, and air), can cause the occurrence of related
comfort complaints, which can result in decreased performance and increased
amounts of sick leave.

➢ Symptoms characterizing poor IEQ are throat, nose and eye irritations,
eczema, headaches, tiredness and lack of concentration.
 Thermal Comfort and Control

Thermal Comfort: According to ASHRAE, thermal comfort is “that state of

mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment“.

❖ There are six primary factors that affect the conditions for thermal comfort of
occupants. The environmental factors are dry-bulb air temperature, radiant
temperature, air speed, and relative humidity. The personal factors are
metabolic rate and thermal insulation of clothing.

❖ The thermal comfort parameters can be controlled via heating, cooling and air
conditioning systems.
Thermal Comfort and Control

❑Achieving and maintaining thermal comfort for the occupants of buildings drives much of
the energy consumption by buildings.

❑Thermal comfort is an essential requirement for building users, is a key metric of a

building’s overall IEQ, and has an influence on the health and productive performance of
building occupants.

❑The challenge facing HVAC&R engineers and designers of green buildings is to provide
healthy, thermally comfortable, and productive environments as energy efficiently as
possible.

❑The thermal environment within a building is also important for the long-term durability of
the building fabric and its contents.
❖A study on the relationship between performance and interior temperature, showed a
decrease in performance by 2% per °C increase for temperature ranging between 25 and
35 °C, and no effect on the performance for temperature ranging between 21 and 25 °C.

❖In a different study, an increase in performance for temperature reaching up to 20–23 °C,
and a decrease in performance with temperature above 23–24 °C.

❖The link between temperature and performance is particularly relevant in occupational

settings because the overall output of workers and their productivity may be strongly
affected by increasing workplace temperature and extreme weather events (e.g., heat-
waves).
A number of variables interact to determine whether people are comfortable with the temperature of
the indoor air. The activity level, age, and physiology of each person affect the thermal comfort
requirements of that individual.

Uniformity of temperature is important to comfort. When the heating and cooling needs of rooms within
a single zone change at different rates, rooms that are served by a single thermostat may be at different
temperatures. Temperature stratification is a common problem caused by convection, the tendency of light,
warm air to rise and heavier, cooler air to sink. If air is not properly mixed by the ventilation system, the
temperature near the ceiling can be several degrees warmer than at floor level. Even if air is properly
mixed, uninsulated floors over unheated spaces can create discomfort in some climate zones.

Radiant heat transfer may cause people located near very hot or very cold surfaces to be uncomfortable
even though the thermostat setting and the measured air temperature are within the comfort range.
Buildings with large window areas sometimes have acute problems of discomfort due to
radiant heat gains and losses.

Humidity is a factor in thermal comfort. Raising relative humidity reduces the ability to lose
heat through sweat and evaporation, so that the effect is similar to raising the temperature.
Excessively high or low relative humidity can produce discomfort.
Role of HVAC and Control for Thermal Comfort

The thermal comfort parameters can be controlled via heating, cooling and air
conditioning systems.

The five primary HVAC operation factors that impact thermal comfort, and thus
imply the need for adequate control are (i) air movement (e.g., from diffusers,
avoidance of drafts), (ii) air temperature, (iii) humidity conditions, (iv) vertical
air temperature gradients (floor to ceiling air temperatures), and (v) radiant
surface temperatures (e.g., warm or cold floors, ceilings, or other surfaces).
Figure: Thermal comfort is maintained by correctly understanding all of the relationships applying effective tools
 Visual Comfort (Light and Illumination)

Visual comfort is defined as “the subjective condition of visual well-being induced by the
visual environment”.

❖A well-designed lighting system must provide adequate illumination to ensure safety and
enable movement, contribute to visual comfort and facilitate visual performance and color
perception.

❖Insufficient or inappropriate illumination can result in health and safety hazards as well as
poor performance.

❖In a building, much of energy savings will be achieved through more effective use of
daylight and electricity for illumination.
❖Lighting systems and solar shading systems belong to the fast-reacting systems.
Consequentially the change in conditions can take place nearly immediate a change of
requirements. They also belong to the low-energy consumption systems.

❖Nevertheless, it can account for up to 25% of the total building energy consumption. Here,
the use of daylight sensors and photocells leads to a major reduction of the energy
consumption for lighting.

Monitored parameters include quantitative physical measures of the luminous environment

(luminance, daylight provision and glare) and qualitative aspects of vision (distribution,
uniformity, color rendering, the spectral composition of radiation).
Figure: Daylight used in combination with shading and mixed mode ventilation.
Increasing use of daylighting together with changing to more energy-efficient
light sources (e.g., light-emitting diodes [LEDs]) might provide the
opportunity to increase light levels during daytime, without increasing energy
use. This all depends on the spectrum, intensity, duration, pattern, and timing
of light exposure.
Automatic Control. Illumination will increasingly be controlled by occupancy
sensors, timers, and, in some cases, by timer-limited switches. This is common
in Europe and Japan already and will become increasingly common in green
buildings in the United States.

Individual Control. There is strong evidence that individuals differ in their

preferences for illumination levels. Having the opportunity to choose one’s own
light levels creates a positive mood that carries over into other dimensions of
well-being. On average, individual (personal) control also reduces energy use by
10%–20% over typical fixed light levels.
Design Considerations for Visual Comfort. Lighting design for green buildings could consider the
following:

• Electrical illumination should be accomplished with user-controlled task lighting wherever practical.

• Lighting controls in buildings should be localized, allow variable light levels, and be accessible to
users wherever practical.

• A variety of lighting conditions through diverse illumination sources should be provided to allow
maximum user choice in control and regulation of interior lighting.

• Design of lighting and performance standards for lighting should be based on light delivered to
actual task stations in buildings, not on illumination of general spaces.

• Standards should discourage delivery of over-illumination to non-task areas.

• The use of newer light sources should be applied cautiously until the health effects research indicates
that the impacts are within acceptable limits.
Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)

Indoor air quality is closely related to thermal comfort. Good IAQ is defined by
the absence of contaminants at concentrations likely to be harmful and the
absence of conditions that are likely to be associated with occupant health or
comfort complaints.

Indoor air quality are based on thermal, ventilation rates, humidity and exposure
limits for air pollutants.
Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)

❖ The major means for achieving good IAQ are eliminating or reducing the sources of pollution in
building materials and furnishings and from appliances, equipment, and consumer products.

❖ After vigorous efforts to eliminate pollutant sources, ventilation is applied to remove unavoidable
pollutants, including the metabolic products from occupants and those from materials and
furnishings used.

❖ Finally, if possible, measurements of indoor contaminant concentrations should be made and

compared with design goals or available benchmarks to verify that good IAQ is achieved as
intended.
Sources of Indoor Air Contaminants

Indoor air contaminants can originate within the building or be drawn in from outdoors. If contaminant sources are not
controlled, IAQ problems can arise, even if the HVAC system is properly designed and well-maintained.

1. Sources Outside Building

Contaminated outdoor air

▪ dust, fungal spores

▪ industrial pollutants
▪ general vehicle exhaust

Emissions from nearby sources

▪ exhaust from vehicles on nearby roads or in parking lots, or garages

▪ loading docks
▪ odors from dumpsters
▪ re-entrained (drawn back into the building) exhaust from the building itself or from neighboring buildings
▪ unsanitary debris near the outdoor air intake
2. Equipment

HVAC system

▪ dust or dirt in ductwork or other components

▪ microbiological growth in humidifiers, ductwork, coils
▪ improper use of cleaning compounds
▪ refrigerant leakage

Non-HVAC equipment

▪ emissions from office equipment (volatile organic compounds, ozone)

▪ supplies (solvents, toners, ammonia)
▪ emissions from shops, labs, cleaning processes
▪ elevator motors and other mechanical systems
3. Human Activities

Personal activities

▪ smoking
▪ cooking
▪ body odor
▪ cosmetic odors

Housekeeping activities

▪ cleaning materials and procedures

▪ emissions from stored supplies or trash
▪ airborne dust or dirt (e.g., circulated by sweeping and vacuuming)

Maintenance activities

▪ microorganisms in mist from improperly maintained cooling towers

▪ volatile organic compounds from use of paint, adhesives, and other products
▪ pesticides from pest control activities
▪ emissions from stored supplies
4. Building Components and Furnishings

Locations that produce or collect dust or fibers

▪ textured surfaces such as carpeting, curtains, and other textiles

▪ old or deteriorated furnishings
▪ materials containing damaged asbestos

Unsanitary conditions and water damage

▪ microbiological growth on or in soiled or water-damaged furnishings

▪ microbiological growth in areas of surface condensation
▪ standing water from clogged or poorly designed drains
Chemicals released from building components or furnishings

▪ volatile organic compounds: paints and solvents, wood preservatives.

▪ inorganic compounds: sodium chloride (salt), sodium bicarbonate (baking soda), calcium carbonate (dietary calcium
source), and muriatic acid (industrial-grade hydrochloric acid)
5. Other Sources

Accidental events

▪ spills of water or other liquids

▪ microbiological growth due to flooding or to leaks from roofs, piping
▪ fire damage (soot, odors)

Special use areas and mixed use buildings

▪ smoking lounges
▪ laboratories
▪ print shops, art rooms
▪ exercise rooms
▪ beauty salons
▪ food preparation areas

Redecorating/remodeling/repair activities

▪ emissions from new furnishings

▪ dust and fibers from destruction
▪ odors and volatile organic and inorganic compounds from paint, adhesives
▪ microbiologicals released from destruction or remodeling activities
Indoor Air Quality Control: Indoor air quality can be controlled in natural
ways (windows, wall openings), and artificial ways (air conditioning system).
Meaning that the change of air can be either supplied naturally through
windows, or it can be introduced by an air conditioning system. Ventilation
belongs to the fast reacting systems, so the adaptation to changed requirements
can take place immediately.

Assignment:

Describe the personal responsibility to reduce the Indoor Air Contaminants.

Ventilation:

▪ The amount of outdoor air considered adequate for proper ventilation has varied
substantially over time.

▪ Uncontrolled quantities of outdoor air enter buildings by infiltration through windows,

doors, and gaps in the exterior construction.

▪ Thermal comfort and ventilation needs are met by supplying “conditioned” air (a blend of
outdoor and recirculated air that has been filtered, heated or cooled, and sometimes
humidified or dehumidified).

▪ Two of the most common HVAC designs used in modern public and commercial buildings
to control the ventilation are constant air volume and variable air volume systems.
Constant volume systems are designed to provide a constant airflow and to vary the air
temperature to meet heating and cooling needs. The percentage of outdoor air may be held
constant, but is often controlled either manually or automatically to vary with outdoor
temperature and humidity. Controls may include a minimum setting that should allow the
system to meet ventilation guidelines for outdoor air quantities under design conditions.

Variable air volume (VAV) systems condition supply air to a constant temperature and
ensure thermal comfort by varying the airflow to occupied spaces.
Control of Odors and Contaminants

• One technique for controlling odors and contaminants is to dilute them with outdoor air.
Dilution can work only if there is a consistent and appropriate flow of supply air that mixes
effectively with room air. The term “ventilation efficiency” is used to describe the ability of
the ventilation system to distribute supply air and remove internally generated pollutants.

• Air cleaning and filtration devices designed to control contaminants are found as
components of HVAC systems (for example, filter boxes in ductwork) and can also be
installed as independent units. The effectiveness of air cleaning depends upon proper
equipment selection, installation, operation, and maintenance. Caution should be used in
evaluating the many new technological developments in the field of air cleaning and
filtration.
 Acoustic Comfort

Noise and vibration are commonly combined into one term, acoustics. Sound intensity, often
characterized in decibels, can be too strong or too weak for building occupants to
successfully use buildings for their intended purpose.

❖Individuals have different sensitivities to different noise frequencies, so control of noise

spectrum also matters. Speech recognition requires sufficient volume without competing
background noise, while concentration during activity or sleep and relaxation may require
significantly quieter conditions.

❖Poor acoustic conditions are cited as the top source of dissatisfaction in evaluations of
building occupants, particularly in green buildings.
Acoustic comfort is often understood to be a situation where there is an acceptable level of noise. However, the
perception of sound is a much more complex issue that depends not only on sound intensity and its temporal and
spectral features, but also on the activity of a person, state of mind.

Noise is defined as “the sound occurring within the frequency range of the human hearing which disturbs silence
or an intended sound perception and results in annoyance or risks the health”.

According to Genuit, acoustic quality “is the degree to which the totality of the individual requirements made
on an auditory event are met”.

Navai and Veitch defined acoustic satisfaction “as a state of contentment with acoustic conditions; it is
inclusive of annoyance, loudness, and distraction”.

However, there is no standard definition neither for acoustic quality nor acoustic comfort/satisfaction. A good
acoustic environment is typically associated with the isolation of unwanted sounds and presence of pleasant
sound.
In general, acoustic quality in buildings can be influenced and reached by (i) sound insulation and (ii)
sound absorption.

(i) The sound insulation of a building façade, roof and windows is important in terms of the protection
of the building interior from unwanted outdoor noise. Sound insulation of floors, wall partitions and
doors needs to be considered once indoor sources (neighbours’ noise, air-conditioning units) are
present.

(ii) Once a room is well insulated, room acoustic aspects come into attention. Sound produced inside a
room (such as restaurant ambiance, classes at school) can be enhanced due to multiple reflections,
causing deterioration of speech intelligibility and the presence of unacceptable noise levels from
sources in the interior. In such cases, volume, shape and the total amount of sound absorption play a
role. There are many standards that describe sound insulation and sound absorption measurement and
simulation procedures.
Good acoustic environments are possible in green buildings. Some suggestions include the
following:

• Limit the amount of glass in a building to the amount just needed for daylighting requirements.

• For natural ventilation designs, place ventilation inlets on the building envelope so that they do not
face external noise sources (e.g., traffic).

• Consider using a sound-masking system in low-background-noise conditions to improve speech

privacy.

• Place acoustical absorption on allowable surfaces within spaces and/or consider using hanging
acoustical elements such as banners, drapes, etc. Also explore acoustically absorptive materials that
may be more green (i.e., made from recycled content and/or recyclable).
Characteristics of Energy Use in Building

Energy use in buildings depends on a combination of good architecture and energy systems design
and on effective operations and maintenance once the building is occupied. It should also be
understood that different climates probably require different designs and equipment, and that the
performance and value of any component technology depends on the system in which it is
embedded.

The major areas of energy consumption in buildings are heating, ventilation, and air conditioning—
35% of total building energy; lighting—11%; major appliances (water heating, refrigerators and
freezers, dryers)—18% with the remaining 36% in miscellaneous areas including electronics. In each
case there are opportunities both for improving the performance of system components (e.g.,
improving the efficiency of lighting devices) and improving the way they are controlled as a part of
integrated building systems (e.g., sensors that adjust light levels to occupancy and daylight).
For example, figure 5.1 shows U.S. building energy use in 2014.
Natural Energy Gains: Passive solar heating, passive cooling, natural ventilation flow, and
daylight.

Internal Heat Gain: Thermal energy from people, lighting and appliances that give off heat
to the indoor environment.

Delivered Energy: Amount of energy supplied to meet the buildings net energy demand.
Could be supplemented by on-site renewable energy

Exported Energy: Fraction of delivered energy that, is sold to external user

System Losses: System losses result from the inefficiencies in transporting and converting
the delivered energy
The amount of energy demand in a building in order to attain the
required indoor climate is dependent on:

– The properties/characteristics/types of the building;

– How efficiently the delivered energy is used to meet the buildings net
energy demand;

– How efficiently energy is used by people in the building;

– The percentage of the buildings energy requirement that is supplied by

renewable energy.

– Passive energy supply

Approaches through which the energy consumption of a building can reduced. They
can be categorized into:

• Reducing heating demand

• Reducing cooling demand

• Reducing the energy requirements for ventilation

• Reducing energy use for lighting

• Reducing energy used for heating water

• Reducing electricity consumption of office equipment and Appliances

• Good housekeeping and people solutions

Reducing Heating Demand: Heating demand can be reduced by:

Limiting the exposed surface area of the buildings

Improving the insulation of the building fabric

Reducing ventilation losses

By selecting efficient heating systems with effective controls.

Reducing Cooling Demand: The need for air-conditioning or the size of the systems installed can be reduced
by:

Controlling solar gains through glazing;

Reducing Internal Heat Gains;

By providing effective natural ventilation;

Reducing lighting loads and installing effective lighting controls.

Reducing the Energy Requirements for Ventilation: Cross ventilation relies on the wind and is therefore
sometimes called 'wind-induced ventilation. ' While stack
The energy required for ventilation can be minimized
ventilation is a vertical process, cross ventilation is a
by: horizontal one, allowing air to enter through one side of
a building and exit through the other.
• A building design that maximizes natural ventilation;

• Effective window design;

• Using efficient mechanical ventilation systems.

Reducing Energy Use for Lighting: This can be accomplished through:

• Making maximum use of daylight while avoiding excessive solar heat gain

• Installing energy efficient luminaires with a high light output to energy ratio

• By providing effective controls which prevent lights being left on unnecessarily

Natural light provides healthier working conditions than artificial light - and it is free;

Large modern buildings often have many areas being starved of natural light; Therefore the
challenge is to channel natural light to areas without windows; Sunpipes can be used to
introduce daylight to windowless areas.
Reducing Energy Use for Heating Water

• Installing time controls and setting them to reflect the hours of hot water requirement;

• Setting sanitary hot water thermostats to the appropriate temperature;

• Switching off electric heating elements (immersion) when hot water from the boiler is
available;

• Switching off any associated pumps when hot water is not required

• Replacing damaged or missing insulation from hot water pipe work and cylinders;

• Identifying a suitable hot water system.

Reducing Consumption of Office Equipment and Appliances

Typical measures to reduce consumption which also apply to household appliances are:

• Switching off or enabling power down mode reduces the energy consumption
and heat produced by equipment.

• Upgrading existing equipment. Some energy efficient appliances may cost

more but they will recoup savings over their lifetime.

• Matching the equipment to the task. Bear in mind current and predicted
requirements and purchase equipment that meet these.
Good Housekeeping and People Solutions

The level of achievable energy savings from office equipment is down to the everyday management by staff. A
simple energy conservation program for an organization would consider:

• Setting up an energy policy for the organization;

• Appointing an Energy Champion;

• Involving staff;

• Setting targets;

• Using notices and reminders;

• Conducting walk-rounds;

• Taking meter readings

Wind is air in motion. It is produced by the uneven heating of the earth's surface by the sun. Since the earth's surface is
made of various land and water formations, it absorbs the sun's radiation unevenly. Two factors are necessary to
specify wind: speed and direction.