By PSC
F.3 Chemistry
Chapter Eight - Covalent bonding
A. Covalent bonding and covalent compounds
• When metal atoms and non-metal atoms combine, metal atoms tend to lose electrons
and non-metal atoms tend to gain electrons. Transfer of electrons occurs for attaining
the electronic arrangement of a noble gas and an ionic bond forms.
• When non-metal atoms combine, they attain the electronic arrangement of a noble
gas atom by the sharing of electrons. A covalent bond forms by the sharing of
outermost shell electrons between two atoms.
Covalent bond refers to the directional electrostatic attraction between the shared
electrons (negatively charged) and the two nuclei (positively charged) of the bonded atoms.
• Covalent bond is directional as the bonded atoms prefer a specific orientation relative
to one another. It acts only between two atoms involved in the covalent bond.
• A shared pair of electrons (i.e. a bond pair of electrons (a bond pair)) makes a single
covalent bond, e.g. H–Cl or H–H.
• Two shared pairs of electrons make a double covalent bond, e.g. O=C=O.
Three shared pairs of electrons make a triple covalent bond, e.g. N≡N.
• Compounds made up of only non-metals usually consist of molecules. Elements
are made up of either atoms or molecules. All metals consist of atoms. Most non-
metals consist of discrete (separate) molecules.
• A molecule is the smallest part of an element or a compound which can exist on its
own under room conditions. A molecule of an element consists of atoms of the same
kind. A molecule of a compound consists of atoms of different kinds.
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Covalent bonding in non-metal element
Example: formation of covalent bond in a hydrogen molecule (H2)
• Hydrogen exists as discrete (separate) molecules under room conditions. A
hydrogen molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms.
• Hydrogen atoms (H) are very unstable. They have only one outermost shell electron
(one electron less than a duplet).
• Each hydrogen atom shares its outermost shell electron with another hydrogen
atom. In H2, each hydrogen atom has a stable duplet.
A shared pair of electrons forms a
single covalent bond
• There is one shared electron pair (bond pair) between two hydrogen atoms. A single
covalent bond is formed.
Example: formation of covalent bond in an oxygen molecule (O2)
• Oxygen atoms (O) are very unstable. They have six outermost shell electrons (two
electrons less than an octet).
• Oxygen atoms need two more electrons to attain the electronic arrangement of a neon
atom.
• Each oxygen atom shares two of its outermost shell electrons with another oxygen
atom. In an oxygen molecule, each oxygen atom has a stable octet.
There are two types of electron pairs in covalent molecules.
• An electron pair shared between two atoms is called a bond pair of electrons.
• An electron pair that is not shared between atoms (not involved in bonding) is called a
lone pair of electrons.
• There are two lone pairs of electrons (lone pairs) on each oxygen atom and two
shared pairs of electrons (bond pairs) between two oxygen atoms. A double
covalent bond is formed.
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• Hydrogen and oxygen exist as diatomic molecules as there are two atoms per
molecule. Other elements that exist as diatomic molecules include chlorine, nitrogen,
etc.
A shared pair of electrons forms a 3 shared pairs of electrons form a
single covalent bond triple covalent bond
• Noble gases (e.g. argon, neon) exist as monoatomic molecules as their molecules
consist of only one atom.
• Ozone (O3) exists as triatomic molecules as there are three atoms per molecule.
Example: formation of covalent bond in a chlorine molecule (Cl2)
• Chlorine atoms (Cl) are very unstable. They have seven outermost shell electrons (one
electron less than an octet).
• Chlorine atoms need one more electron to attain the electronic arrangement of an
argon atom.
• Each chlorine atom shares one of its outermost shell electrons with another
chlorine atom. In a chlorine molecule, each chlorine atom has a stable octet.
A shared pair of electrons forms a
single covalent bond
• There are three lone pairs of electrons (lone pairs) on each chlorine atom and one
shared pair of electrons (bond pair) between two chlorine atoms. A single covalent
bond is formed.
Example: formation of covalent bond in a nitrogen molecule (N2)
• Nitrogen atoms (N) are very unstable. They have five outermost shell electrons (three
electrons less than an octet).
• Nitrogen atoms need three more electrons to attain the electronic arrangement of a
neon atom.
• Each nitrogen atom shares three of its outermost shell electrons with another
nitrogen atom. In a nitrogen molecule, each nitrogen atom has a stable octet.
3 shared pairs of electrons
form a triple covalent bond
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Covalent bonding in covalent compound
Example: formation of covalent bond in a hydrogen chloride molecule (HCl)
• Each hydrogen atom shares its outermost shell electron with a chlorine atom when
they react. After electron sharing, the hydrogen atom has a stable duplet and the
chlorine atom has a stable octet. A single covalent bond is formed.
Other examples:
(i) Water molecule
Two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom combine to form a water molecule. Two
electron pairs in the outermost shell of the central oxygen atom are unshared. There are
two lone pairs of electrons in the central atom of water molecule.
(ii) Methane molecule
For each methane molecule, one carbon atom is bonded to four hydrogen atoms and
there are four single covalent bonds around the central carbon atom.
(iii) Ammonia molecule
For each ammonia molecule, one nitrogen atom is bonded to three hydrogen atoms
forming three single covalent bonds. There are three bond pairs of electrons and one
lone pair of electrons around the central nitrogen atom.
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(iv) Tetrachloromethane molecule
For each tetrachloromethane molecule, one carbon atom is bonded to four chlorine
atoms forming four single covalent bonds. There are four bond pairs of electrons and no
lone pair of electrons around the central carbon atom.
(v) Carbon dioxide molecule
For each carbon dioxide molecule, one carbon atom is bonded to two oxygen atoms
forming two double covalent bonds. There are four bond pairs of electrons around the
central carbon atom.
B. Molecular formulae, structural formulae and molecular models
Molecular formula
• The molecular formula of a molecular substance is the formula which shows the actual
number of each kind of atoms in one molecule of the substance. E.g., methane
(CH4), chlorine (Cl2), water (H2O), ammonia (NH3) and nitrogen (N2).
Structural formula
• The structural formula of a molecular substance is the formula which shows the ways
that the atoms are joined together in one molecule of the substance.
• A single covalent bond is often represented by a stroke (–) between the chemical
symbols of the bonded atoms.
E.g.
• Similarly, a double covalent bond and a triple covalent bond can be represented by ‘=’
and ‘≡’ respectively. E.g., Oxygen (O=O) and nitrogen (N≡N)
• The molecular models are used to represent molecules as well.
• Common kinds of molecular models: (i) Ball-and-stick models (ii) Space-filling models
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C. Dative covalent bond
• A dative covalent bond (or coordinate bond) is a covalent bond formed between
two atoms where both electrons in the shared pair are contributed by the same
atom.
Consider an ammonium ion (NH4+):
• Ammonium ion forms when an ammonia molecule combines with a hydrogen ion.
• The ammonium ion (NH4+) has an overall charge of 1+ distributed all over the structure.
• The N atom in NH3 shares its lone pair of electrons with the H+ ion, forming a dative
covalent bond (or coordinate bond).
• Both electrons in a shared pair come from the nitrogen atom.
• An arrow ‘ → ’ is often used to represent the dative covalent bond. It points from the
atom contributing the electrons for sharing to the atom accepting the electrons.
• Note: We should NOT include any electrons in writing structural formulae. The lone
pair of electrons on the N atom is included here for better understanding.
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• Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) is an ionic compound.
• Types of bonds present in ammonium chloride:
• Ionic bonds (between NH4+ and Cl– ions)
• Covalent bonds (four identical N–H bonds, with one N–H dative covalent bond)
Consider a hydronium ion / hydroxonium ion (H3O+):
• Hydronium ion forms when a water molecule combines with a hydrogen ion (H+), which
can be produced when hydrogen chloride gas is bubbled into water.
• The O atom in an H2O molecule can share one of its lone pairs of electrons with an H+
ion, forming a dative covalent bond.
• Note: We should NOT include any electrons in writing structural formulae. The lone
pair of electrons on the O atom is included here for better understanding.
Consider a tetrafluoroborate ion (BF4–):
• Tetrafluoroborate ion (BF4–) is a polyatomic anion. It forms when a boron trifluoride
molecule (BF3) combines with a fluoride ion.
• When a BF3 molecule combines with an F– ion, the F– ion shares a lone pair of
electrons with the B atom in the BF3 molecule to form a dative covalent bond. By doing
so, the B atom can attain the stable electronic arrangement of a neon atom.
• Use an arrow (→) to represent the dative covalent bond in the structural formula for the
tetrafluoroborate ion.
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Consider an ammonia borane (H3NBH3) molecule:
• Ammonia borane (H3NBH3) molecule is formed when an ammonia molecule (NH3)
combines with a borane molecule (BH3).
• In a borane molecule, there are six outermost shell electrons around B atom. In an
ammonia molecule, there is a lone pair of electrons on N atom.
• The N atom in an NH3 molecule shares a lone pair of electrons with the B atom in a
BH3 molecule to form a dative covalent bond.
Exercises:
1. Carbon monoxide (CO) 2. Ozone (O3)
3. Nitrate ion (NO3–) 4. Dinitrogen monoxide (N2O)
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D. Writing the formulae of covalent compounds
• Formulae of molecular compounds are usually expressed by molecular formulae.
• The molecular formula of a covalent compound indicates the ratio of one atom to the
other(s) in the molecule.
• A short cut to predict the molecular formula:
◼ List the elements present in the molecule using their chemical symbols.
◼ Write the symbols of the elements involved. The element that occurs first in
the following series is written first. B, Si, C, P, N, H, S, I, Br, Cl, O, F
◼ Work out the number of electrons required for the atoms to attain the nearest
noble gas structure.
◼ E.g. ammonia consists of nitrogen and hydrogen
(Omit the numeral ‘1’)
• Work out the formula of the compound formed between carbon and chlorine.
❶ C Cl
❷ C Cl
2,4 2,8,7
❸ C Cl
4 1
❺ CCl4
E. Writing the names of covalent compounds
• Covalent compounds formed from two elements should be named according to the
following rules:
• The element that occurs first in the following series is named first:
B, Si, C, P, N, H, S, I, Br, Cl, O, F
• The name of the second element should end with -ide.
• A prefix (mono, di, tri, tetra and so on) is usually used to indicate the number of atoms
of that element in a molecule of the compound.
• Chlorine trifluoride (ClF3) and dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4)
• Some names of some common covalent compounds do not follow the above rules.
CH4 (methane), NH3 (ammonia), H2O (water) and H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide),
PH3 (phosphine)
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F. Relative molecular mass and formula mass
• Relative molecular mass of an element or a compound
= Sum of the relative atomic masses of all atoms present in a molecule of the element
or compound on the 12C = 12.00 scale
• Formula mass of a substance (or species)
= Sum of the relative atomic masses of all atoms present in a formula unit of the
substance or species on the 12C = 12.00 scale
Eg. (a) Calculate the relative molecular mass of CCl4.
(Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0, Cl = 35.5)
12.0 + 35.5 × 4
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= 154.0 (no unit)
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(b) Calculate the formula mass of H3O+.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0)
1.0 × 3 + 16.0
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= 19.0 (no unit)
(c) Calculate the formula mass of Al2(SO4)3 . 2H2O.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0, Al = 27.0, S = 32.1)
27.0 × 2 + (32.1 + 16.0 × 4) × 3 + 2 × (1.0 × 2 + 16.0)
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= 378.3 (no unit)
Summary on three types of bonding:
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Particles that make up matter — a summary
Exercises:
1. In each of the following cases, state whether the substance consists of atoms,
molecules or ions:
(a) bromine
(b) zinc
(c) carbon dioxide
(d) magnesium sulphate
(e) carbon
(f) sulphur dioxide
(g) sodium
(h) potassium sulphide
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Particles that make up matter — a summary
Exercises:
1. In each of the following cases, state whether the substance consists of atoms,
molecules or ions:
(a) bromine
(b) zinc
(c) carbon dioxide
(d) magnesium sulphate
(e) carbon
(f) sulphur dioxide
(g) sodium
(h) potassium sulphide
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