Chapter 7 Metallic bonding and ionic bonding By PSC

A. Metallic bonds

⚫ All metals conduct electricity.

⚫ Example: aluminium and iron

⚫ Consider a piece of sodium. The sodium atoms in the metal pack closely together.
⚫ Electronic arrangement of a sodium atom: 2 , 8 , 1
⚫ This single outermost shell electron is far away from the nucleus.
⚫ It is not strongly attracted so it can escape easily to leave a positively charged
sodium ion.
⚫ The outermost shell electrons of all sodium atoms move freely and randomly
among the sodium ions. These are delocalized electrons.
⚫ The metal ions are surrounded by a ‘sea’ of delocalized electrons.

⚫ The movement of delocalized electrons makes metals good conductors of electricity.

⚫ Metallic bond refers to the electrostatic attraction (i.e. attraction between
opposite charges) between negatively charged delocalized electrons and positively
charged metal ions.
⚫ Metallic bond is non-directional. It acts in all directions.

Metallic bond refers to the non-directional electrostatic attraction between

delocalized electrons and metal ions.

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B. What is a chemical bond and ionic bond?

⚫ A chemical bond refers to the electrostatic attraction that holds atoms or ions
together.
⚫ Metallic bond is a type of chemical bond.
⚫ Ionic bond and covalent bond are two other types of chemical bond.
⚫ Ionic bond is mainly found in compounds formed between metals and non-metals.
⚫ Covalent bond is mainly found in non-metals and in compounds formed from non-
metals only.
⚫ In chemical reactions, atoms tend to attain a stable electronic arrangement of the
nearest noble gas atoms by gaining or losing outermost shell electrons.
⚫ When an atom gains or loses one or more electrons, an ion forms.

⚫ Formation of positive ions

- A metal atom has few outermost shell electrons (usually 1 to 3).
- Metal atoms tend to lose electrons, forming a cation (positively charged ion).

⚫ Example – Formation of sodium ion from its atom

Electronic arrangement of a sodium atom: 2, 8, 1
Losing one electron to attain the electronic arrangement of a neon atom
Electronic arrangement of a sodium ion: 2 , 8

⚫ In a sodium atom (Na), there are 11 protons and 11 electrons. Overall it is electrically
neutral.
⚫ In a sodium ion (Na+), there are 11 protons and 10 electrons. Its overall charge is 1+.
⚫ The following table shows the number of protons and the number of electrons in a
sodium atom and a sodium ion respectively.

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⚫ Example – Formation of magnesium ion from its atom
Electronic arrangement of a magnesium atom: 2, 8, 2
Losing two electrons to attain the electronic arrangement of a neon atom
Electronic arrangement of a magnesium ion: 2, 8

⚫ In a magnesium atom (Mg), there are 12 protons and 12 electrons. Overall it is

electrically neutral.
⚫ In a magnesium ion (Mg2+), there are 12 protons and 10 electrons. Its overall charge
is 2+.
⚫ The following table shows the number of protons and the number of electrons in a
magnesium atom and a magnesium ion respectively.

⚫ Drawing electron diagrams to represent cations

⚫ Note the following points when drawing the electron diagram of a cation (e.g. a
sodium ion).
❶ Write the correct symbol of the element
❷ Draw the electron shell(s) and the correct number of electrons in each shell
❸ Draw a pair of square brackets
❹ Write the charge of the ion on the top right-hand corner outside the bracket
(a) Omit the number ‘1’ if the overall charge of the cation is 1+, i.e. write ‘+’
(b) If the overall charge of the cation is larger than 1, write the number of
the charge, followed by the ‘+’ sign e.g. 2+, 3+

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⚫ Questions:
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(1) Describe briefly how an atom 13𝐴𝑙 can attain a stable octet electronic
arrangement.

An aluminium atom loses three outermost shell electrons in order to attain

the stable octet electronic arrangement of neon atom (2,8).

(2) Write the numbers of protons, electrons and neutrons in the aluminium ion
formed from an 27
13𝐴𝑙 atom.

Number of protons: 13; number of electrons: 10; number of neutrons: 14

⚫ Formation of negative ions

- A non-metal atom has more outermost shell electrons.
- Non-metal atoms tend to gain electrons, forming an anion (negatively charged
ion).

⚫ Example – Formation of chloride ion from its atom

Electronic arrangement of a chlorine atom: 2, 8, 7
Gaining one electron to attain the electronic arrangement of an argon atom
Electronic arrangement of a chloride ion: 2, 8, 8

⚫ In a chlorine atom (Cl), there are 17 protons and 17 electrons. Overall it is electrically
neutral.
⚫ In a chloride ion (Cl-), there are 17 protons and 18 electrons. Its overall charge is 1-.
⚫ The following table shows the number of protons and the number of electrons in a
chlorine atom and a chloride ion respectively.

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⚫ Example – Formation of oxide ion from its atom
Electronic arrangement of an oxygen atom: 2, 6
Gaining two electrons to attain the electronic arrangement of a neon atom
Electronic arrangement of an oxide ion: 2, 8

⚫ In an oxygen atom (O), there are 8 protons and 8 electrons. Overall it is electrically
neutral.
⚫ In an oxide ion (O2-), there are 8 protons and 8 electrons. Its overall charge is 2-.
⚫ The following table shows the number of protons and the number of electrons in an
oxygen atom and an oxide ion respectively.

⚫ Drawing electron diagrams to represent anions

⚫ Note the following points when drawing the electron diagram of an anion (e.g. a
chloride ion).
❶ Write the correct symbol of the element
❷ Draw the correct number of electron shell(s)
❸ Usually, ‘•’ is used to indicate the electrons from metal atom and ‘×’ is used to
indicate the electrons from the non-metal atom. However, this is NOT a must
because the electrons of the atoms itself and those from the other atoms are
indistinguishable.
❹ Draw a pair of square brackets
❺ Write the charge of the ion on the top right-hand corner outside the bracket
(a) Omit the number ‘1’ if the overall charge of the anion is 1–, i.e. write ‘–’
(b) If the overall charge of the anion is larger than 1, write the number of the
charge, followed by the ‘–’ sign e.g. 2–, 3–

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C. Simple ions and polyatomic ions
• A simple ion is derived from a single atom such Na+ and Cl–.
• A polyatomic ion is derived from a group of atoms such as NH4+ and SO42–.
• Models of some polyatomic ions

The atoms in these polyatomic ions are held together by covalent bond, which is
another type of chemical bond. More details about covalent bond will be discussed in
Chapter 8.
What do you think about O22-, a simple ion or polyatomic ion?

• The numbers of protons and neutrons do not change during formation of ions.
However, no. of electrons must change.
• no. of protons in NH4+ ion is 11 (= 7 + 1 x 4) but no. of electrons is 10 (= 7 + 1 x 4 – 1).
no. of protons in OH– ion is 9 (= 8 + 1) but no. of electrons is 10 (= 8 + 1 + 1).

D. Formulae of ions

• For metals in Groups I, II and III, the number of positive charges on an ion is equal to
its group number.
• For non-metals in Groups V, VI and VII, the number of negative charges on an ion is
usually equal to ‘8 minus group number’.

• Group IV elements (C or Si) seldom form ions because it requires a lot of energy for
forming ions except lead and tin which can form Pb2+ ion and Sn2+ ion respectively.

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 Cations Anions
Symbol or Symbol or
Charge Name Charge Name
formula formula
H+ Hydrogen ion H– Hydride ion
Na+ Sodium ion Cl– Chloride ion
K+ Potassium ion Br– Bromide ion
+1 Cu+ Copper(I) ion –1 I– Iodide ion
Ag+ Silver ion OH– Hydroxide ion
Hg+ Mercury(I) ion NO3– Nitrate ion
NH4+ Ammonium ion NO2– Nitrite ion
HCO3– Hydrogencarbonate ion
MnO4– Permanganate ion
Mg2+ Magnesium ion O2– Oxide ion
Ca2+ Calcium ion S2– Sulphide ion
Ba2+ Barium ion SO42– Sulphate ion
Pb2+ Lead(II) ion SO32– Sulphite ion
+2 Fe2+ Iron(II) ion –2 S2O32– Thiosulphate ion
Ni2+ Nickel(II) ion CO32– Carbonate ion
Cu2+ Copper(II) ion CrO42– Chromate ion
Zn2+ Zinc ion Cr2O72– Dichromate ion
Hg2+ Mercury(II) ion
Al3+ Aluminium ion N3– Nitride ion
+3 Fe3+ Iron(III) ion –3 P3– Phosphide ion
Cr3+ Chromium(III) ion PO43– Phosphate ion

⚫ All simple ions of metals (usually Group I to Group III) are cations.

⚫ H+ and NH4+ are non-metal cations.

⚫ NH4+ is the only common polyatomic cation.
⚫ If a metal forms only one cation, the ion has the same name as the metal, e.g.
sodium metal form sodium ion.
⚫ Some transition metals can form more than one simple cation with different
charges. To name each ion, a Roman numeral indicating the charge is written in
brackets after the name of the metal. e.g. iron metal (Fe) can form iron(II) ion (Fe2+)
and iron(III) ion (Fe3+).
⚫ Group V to Group VII elements tend to form anions (ions with negative charge).
⚫ Ions with charge 4– are uncommon.

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 ⚫ All simple ions of non-metal (except H+) and most polyatomic ions (except NH4+) are
anions.
⚫ Some polyatomic ions consist of non-metals only while some consist of a metal and
a non-metal.
⚫ Simple anions have names ending in -ide, e.g. oxide ion (O2–); sulphide ion (S2–)
⚫ Polyatomic anions containing oxygen often have names ending in -ate (with more
oxygen) or –ite (with less oxygen), e.g. SO42– sulphate ion and SO32– sulphite ion;
NO3– nitrate ion and NO2– nitrite ion

E. Ionic bonding and ionic compounds

• When a metal atom (which tends to lose electrons) and a non-metal atom (which tends
to gain electrons) combine, they do so by the transfer of electrons, forming ions. The
ions are held together by ionic bonds.

Ionic bond refers to the non-directional electrostatic attraction between

oppositely charged ions.

Formation of ionic bond between sodium and chlorine

electron

transfer

sodium atom (Na) chlorine atom (Cl) sodium ion (Na+) chloride ion (Cl–)
(loses one electron) (gains one electron)

(both unstable, therefore reactive) (both stable)

Sodium atom loses one electron to form sodium ion to attain stable octet structure
while chlorine atom gains one electron to form chloride ion to attain stable octet
structure. The ions formed have opposite charges, so they attract each other
strongly by the strong non-directional ionic bonds.

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Formation of ionic bond between magnesium and fluorine

Magnesium atom loses two electrons to form magnesium ion to attain stable octet
structure while each fluorine atom gains one electron to form fluoride ion to attain
stable octet structure. The transfer of electrons from a magnesium atom to two
fluorine atoms when magnesium reacts with fluorine. The non-directional
electrostatic attraction which holds the oppositely charged ions together is called
ionic bond.

Formation of ionic bond between lithium and oxygen

Each lithium atom loses one electron to form lithium ion to attain stable duplet
structure while oxygen atom gains two electrons to form oxide ion to attain stable
octet structure. The transfer of electrons from two lithium atoms to an oxygen atom
when lithium reacts with oxygen. The non-directional electrostatic attraction which
holds the oppositely charged ions together is called ionic bond.
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⚫ The positively charged ions are attracted to the negatively charged ions by ionic
bonds.
⚫ The compounds formed are called ionic compounds. They all consist of ions.
⚫ Electron diagrams of some ionic compounds
⚫ The charges on the positively charged ions balance those on the negatively charged
ions
⚫ Ionic compounds are electrically neutral.

Sodium chloride: Magnesium fluoride:

Lithium oxide:

Q: Draw the electron diagram of iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) with showing electrons in the
outermost shell or ALL electrons.
Fest
(Hint: Electronic arrangement of Fe is 2, 8, 14, 2)
2 ,
8 , 13 , 3

Showing outermost shell electrons only: Showing ALL electrons:

2 , 8,

2]]zos(f
-
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F. Names and formulae of ionic compounds

⚫ We can name ionic compounds according to the following rules:

❶ Refer to the Table on Page 7 for the names of the cation and anion in an
ionic compound.
❷ The cation is named first, followed by the anion. The word ‘ion’ is omitted.

⚫ The formula of an ionic compound is a representation of the compound.

⚫ It shows the types of ions and their simplest ratio in the compound.
⚫ As ionic compound is overall electrically neutral, the total number of positive charges
must be equal to the total number of negative charges.
⚫ The formula of the cation is written first, followed by the anion.

⚫ For example, formula of sodium oxide:

- It consists of sodium ions (Na+) and oxide ions (O2–).
- An ionic compound has no overall electric charge.
- Every oxide ion needs two sodium ions to balance the charges.
- The formula for sodium oxide is Na2O.
- It does not show the charges on both ions!

⚫ For example, formula of magnesium nitrate:

- It consists of magnesium ions (Mg2+) and nitrate ions (NO3–).
- Every magnesium ion needs two nitrate ions to balance the charges.
- The formula for magnesium nitrate is Mg(NO3)2.
- The nitrate ion is placed in brackets and the subscript ‘2’ is written outside the
bracket. Otherwise, the formula would become MgNO32, which cannot indicate
the presence of two NO3– ions.

⚫ For example, formula of ammonium carbonate:

- It consists of ammonium ions (NH4+) and carbonate ions (CO32–).
- Every carbonate ion needs two ammonium ions to balance the charges.
- The formula for ammonium carbonate is (NH4)2CO3.
- The ammonium ion is placed in brackets and the subscript ‘2’ is written outside
the bracket. Otherwise, the formula would become NH42CO3, which cannot
indicate the presence of two NH4+ ions.

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 Question: An ionic compound is electrically neutral. What is the value of x in Cax(PO4)3OH?
Ans: n = 5

Question: With the help of a simple diagram, describe the bonding in potassium metal.
The metallic bond holds the atoms in a piece of potassium metal
together. The bonding is a result of the non-directional electrostatic
attraction between delocalized electrons and potassium ions.

Question: Describe the formation of ionic bond in potassium oxide.

Each potassium atom loses one electron to form potassium ion and
each oxygen atom gains two electrons to form oxide ion in order to
attain stable octet structures. Potassium ions are positively charged and
oxide ions are negatively charged. They are attracted to each other by
non-directional electrostatic attraction (i.e. ionic bond).

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G. Colours of ions in aqueous solution

• The transition metals usually form coloured ions in aqueous solution, which include
simple cations and polyatomic anions.

Name Formula Colour

Copper(II) ion Cu2+ Blue or green
Iron(II) ion Fe2+ Pale green
Iron(III) ion Fe3+ Yellow or brown
Cobalt(II) ion Co2+ Pink
2+
Nickel(II) ion Ni Green
Chromium(III) ion Cr3+ Green
Chromate ion CrO42– Yellow
Dichromate ion Cr2O72– Orange
Manganese(II) ion Mn2+ Very pale pink
Permanganate ion MnO4– Deep purple

• Elements in the main groups of the Periodic Table form colourless ions in aqueous
solution, e.g. Mg2+, Cl–, NO3–, SO42–. Their solids are white in colour such as Na2SO4(s),
MgCl2(s).

• Some particles have the same number of electrons (same electronic arrangement/
isoelectronic),
For example: Ne, N3–, O2–, F–, Na+, Mg2+, Al3+ have 10 electrons.

Ar, P3–, S2–, Cl–, K+, Ca2+, Sc3+ have 18 electrons.

K and Ca+ have 19 electrons.

Although the above atoms or ions have the same number of electrons, they have
different chemical properties because they have different numbers of protons.

Only isotopes have the same chemical properties because they have the same
number of protons and electrons.

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 Colorless bubble formed because electrolysis ,
so

H. Migration of ions

• Experiment 1:
+ –

20 V d.c. supply
microscope slide

filter paper moistened with

pencil line sodium sulphate solution

Potassium permanganate crystal

- What is the purpose of moistening the filter paper with sodium sulphate solution?
It increases electrical conductivity of the filter paper by providing more mobile
ions.

- Why do we use pencil instead of pen to draw a reference line?

Graphite in pencil does not dissolve but ink in pen will dissolve and interfere the
results.

- What colour movement do you observe? Explain this movement of colour (based
on the existence of charged particles - ions).
Purple spot moves to the positive electrode on the left because under the influence
of electric field, purple negatively charged permanganate ions are attracted
towards the positive electrode.
There is no observable change at the negative electrode on the right because
colourless positively charged potassium ions are attracted towards the negative
electrode but this movement cannot be seen.

- Explain whether this movement of colour be explained by diffusion alone. How to

prove it?
No, it cannot be explained by diffusion because the colour spot only moves to one
side of paper but not in all [Link] can be proved by reversing the polarities of
electrodes that the ions will migrate to opposite directions.

- A student stated that copper(II) sulphate solution could be used instead of sodium
sulphate solution. Comment on his statement.
He is incorrect. It is because copper(II) ions are blue and they will interfere the
migration of ions being studied/ mask the movement of ions being studied.

- Explain why distilled water cannot be used to moisten the strip of filter paper.
Water is an electrical insulator and does not contain ions or delocalized electrons
to conduct electricity.

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• Experiment 2: colorless bubble is formed

oxidized
-stronge
oidiz is
postrouser
·

e
- What is the purpose of dilute hydrochloric acid?
It increases electrical conductivity by providing more mobile ions.

- What is the function of the gelatin?

It slows down the mixing of the bottom layer (copper(II) dichromate) with the top
layer (dilute hydrochloric acid). It also slows down the migration of Cu2+(aq) and
Cr2O72–(aq) ions to make the results more easily observed.

- Results: Blue colour appears around the negative electrode and orange colour
appears around the positive electrode.

- Explanation: Under the influence of electric field, blue positively charged

copper(II) ions are attracted towards the negative electrode (on the right) whereas
orange negatively charged dichromate ions are attracted towards the positive
electrode (on the left).

- What happens if an alternating current (a.c.) is used instead of a direct current

(d.c)?
There is no observable change. Ions do not move as the polarities of electrodes
change alternately very fast.

- How to increase the rate of migration?

Increase the voltage/ use a larger area of electrodes/ dip the electrodes deeper
into the solutions

- What happens when dilute hydrochloric acid is replaced by tap water?

Slower migration is resulted.

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