Chapter Three: Kinematics of Deformation and Motion

CHAPTER THREE:

Kinematics of Deformation and Motion

1. Particles, Configurations, Deformation, and Motion

Let define a material body B (that can be any structural element) as the set of elements
X , called particles or material points. Note that whereas a particle of classical mechanics
has an assigned mass, a continuum particle is essentially a material point for which a density is
defined.
The specification of the position of all of the particles of B with respect to a fixed
origin at some instant of time is said to define the configuration of the body at that instant.
Mathematically, this is expressed by the mapping
x =(X) ( 1)
in which the vector function  assigns the position x relative to some origin of each particle
X of the body. The inverse is written
X =  −1 ( x ) ( 2)
and identifies the particle X located at position x .
A change in configuration is the result of a displacement of the body. For example, a
rigid-body displacement is one consisting of a simultaneous translation and rotation which
produces a new configuration but causes no changes in the size or shape of the body, only
changes in its position and/or orientation. On the other hand, an arbitrary displacement will
usually include both a rigid-body displacement and a deformation which results in a change
in size, or shape, or possibly both.
A motion of body B is a continuous time sequence of displacements that carries the
set of particles X into various configurations in a stationary space. Such a motion may be
expressed by the equation
x =  ( X ,t ) ( 3)
which gives the position x for each particle X for all times t . Also, the inverse is written
X =  −1 ( x , t ) ( 4)
which identifies the particle X located at position x at time t .
We give special meaning to certain configurations of the body. In particular, we single
out a reference configuration from which all displacements are reckoned. Often, the initial
configuration, that is, the one which the body occupies at time t = 0 , is chosen as the reference
configuration, and the ensuing deformations and motions related to it. The current
configuration is that one which the body occupies at the current time t .
In developing the concepts of strain, we confine attention to two specific configurations
without any regard for the sequence by which the second configuration is reached from the first.
It is customary to call the first (reference) state the undeformed configuration, and the second
state the deformed configuration. Additionally, time is not a factor in deriving the various
strain tensors, so that both configurations are considered independent of time.

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 Continuum Mechanics For Engineers By Dr. Djomo Mbong

2. Material and Spatial Coordinates

Consider now the reference configuration prescribed by some mapping function 

such that the position vector X of particle X relative to the axes OX 1 X 2 X 3 of Fig.1 is given
by
X = ( X ) ( 5)
In this case we may express X in terms of the base vectors shown in the figure by the equation
X = X A Iˆ A ( 6)
and we call the components X A the material coordinates, or sometimes the referential
coordinates, of the particle X . Upper-case letters which are used as subscripts on material
coordinates, or on any quantity expressed in terms of material coordinates, obey all the rules of
indicial notation. As usual, we assume an inverse mapping
X =  −1 X( ) ( 7)
so that upon substitution of Eq.(7) into Eq.(3) we obtain

( ( ) ) ( )
x =   −1 X , t =  X , t ( 8)
which defines the motion of the body in physical space relative to the refer ence configuration
prescribed by the mapping function  .
Notice that Eq.(8) maps the particle at X in the reference configuration onto the point
x in the current configuration at time t as indicated in Fig.1. With respect to the usual
Cartesian axes Ox1 x2 x3 , the current
position vector is
x = xi eˆi ( 9)
where the components xi are called
the spatial coordinates of the
particle.
We emphasize, however, that
the material coordinates are used in
conjunction with the reference
configuration only, and the spatial
coordinates serve for all other
configurations. As already remarked,
the material coordinates are therefore Figure 1: Position of typical particle in reference
time independent. configuration and current configuration .

3. The Displacement Field

As may be seen from Fig.1, the typical particle of body B undergoes a displacement

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 Chapter Three: Kinematics of Deformation and Motion

u= x− X ( 9)
in the transition from the reference configuration to the current configuration. Because this
relationship holds for all particles it is often useful to analyze deformation or motion in terms
of the displacement field of the body. We may write the displacement vector u in component
form by either of the equivalent expressions
u = ui eˆi = uA Iˆ A ( 10 )
Additionally, with regard to the material and spatial descriptions we may interpret Eq.(9) in
either the material form

( ) ( )
u X ,t = x X ,t − X ( 11 − a )
Or the spatial form
u ( x, t ) = x − X ( x, t ) ( 11 − b )
In the first of this pair of equations, we are describing the displacement that will occur to the
particle that starts at X , and in the second equation we present the displacement that the
particle now at x has undergone.
Remark:
- If a physical or kinematic property (e.g. density  , displacement u etc.) of the body
B is expressed in terms of the material coordinates X , we say that property is given
by the referential or material description, usually called the Lagrangian description
(e.g. ( ) or u = u ( X , t ) ) .
 =  X ,t
- If a physical or kinematic property (e.g. density  , displacement u etc.) of the body
B is expressed in terms of the spatial coordinates x , we say that property is given by
the spatial description, usually called the Eulerian description (e.g.  =  ( x , t ) or
u = u ( x, t ) ) .

Example 1: Let the motion equations be given in component form by the Lagrangian
description
x1 = X 1e t + X 3 ( e t − 1)
x2 = X 2 + X 3 ( e t − e − t )
x3 = X 3
(a) Determine the Eulerian description of this motion.
(b) Obtain the displacement field for the motion in both material and spatial descriptions.

Solution:
(a) Because of the simplicity of these Lagrangian equations of the motion, we may substitute
x3 for X 3 into the first two equations and solve these directly to obtain the inverse
equations, given therefore the Eulerian description of this motion

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 Continuum Mechanics For Engineers By Dr. Djomo Mbong

X 1 = x1e − t + x3 ( e − t − 1)
X 2 = x2 + x3 ( e − t − e t )
X 3 = x3
(b) Using Eq.(11-a), we may compute the displacement field in material form directly as
u1 = x1 − X 1 = ( X 1 + X 3 ) ( e t − 1)
u2 = x2 − X 2 = X 3 ( e t − e − t )
u3 = x3 − X 3 = 0
and by using the inverse equations (the spatial description or the Eulerian description), we
obtain the spatial description of the displacement field in component form

u1 = ( x1 + x3 ) ( 1 − e − t )
u2 = x3 ( e t − e − t )
u3 = 0

4. Deformation Gradients, Finite Strain Tensors

In deformation analysis we confine our attention to two stationary configurations and
disregard any consideration for the particular sequence by which the final deformed
configuration is reached from the initial undeformed configuration. Accordingly, the
mapping function is not dependent upon time as a variable, so that Eq.(8) takes the form

( )
xi =  i X or x =  X ( ) ( 12 )
Consider, therefore, two
neighboring particles of the body situated
at the points P and Q in the undeformed
configuration such that Q is located with
respect to P by the relative differential
position vector
dX = dX A Iˆ A ( 13 )
as shown in Fig.2. The magnitude squared
of dX is
( dX ) ( 14 )
2
= dX  dX = dX AdX A
Figure 2: Vector , between points and , in the
Under the displacement field prescribed
reference configuration, becomes , between points and
by the function  i of Eq.(12), the
, in the current configuration. Displacement vector is the
particles originally at P and Q move to vector between points and .

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 Chapter Three: Kinematics of Deformation and Motion

the positions p and q , respectively, in the deformed configuration such that their relative
position vector is now
dx = dxi eˆi ( 15 )
having a magnitude squared
( dx ) ( 16 )
2
= dx  dx = dxi dxi
We assume the mapping function xi of Eq.(12) is continuous so that
 i
dxi = dX A ( 17 )
X A
or as it is more often written,
 i
dxi = dX A = xi , AdX A ( 18 )
X A
Where
xi , A  FiA ( 19 )
is called the deformation gradient tensor or simply the deformation gradient. The tensor F
characterizes the local deformation at X , and may depend explicitly upon X , in which case

the deformation is termed inhomogeneous. If F is independent of X , the deformation is

called homogeneous. In symbolic notation Eq.(18) appears in either of the forms
dx = F  dX ( 20 )
The inverse relation is possible and we write
dX = F −1  dx ( 21)
In describing motions and deformations, several measures of deformation are commonly used.
First, let us consider that one based upon the change during the deformation in the magnitude
squared of the distance between the particles originally at P and Q , namely,

( dx ) − ( dX ) ( 22 )
2 2
= dxi dxi − dX AdX A
which from Eq.(18) and the substitution property of the Kronecker delta  AB may be developed
as follows,
( dx ) − ( dX ) = ( xi , AdX A )( xi , B dX B ) −  AB dX AdX B
2 2

= ( xi , A xi , B −  AB ) dX AdX B
= ( C AB −  AB ) dX AdX B ( 23 )
where the symmetric tensor

C AB = xi , A xi , B or C = F T  F ( 24 )
is called the Green’s deformation tensor. From this we immediately define the Lagrangian
finite strain tensor E AB as

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 Continuum Mechanics For Engineers By Dr. Djomo Mbong

2 E AB = C AB −  AB or 2E = C − I ( 25 )
where the factor of two is introduced for convenience in later calculations. Finally, we can
write,

( dx ) − ( dX ) ( 26 )
2 2
= 2 E AB dX AdX B = dX  2 E  dX

The difference ( dx ) − ( dX ) may also be developed in terms of the spatial variables in a

2 2

similar way as
( dx ) − ( dX )
2 2
= dxi dxi − dX AdX A

(
=  ij dxi dx j − ( X A,i dxi ) X A, j dx j )
( )
=  ij − X A,i X A, j dxi dx j

( )
=  ij − cij dxi dx j ( 27 )
where the symmetric tensor

( ) (F )
T
cij = X A,i X A, j or c= F −1 −1
( 28 )
is called the Cauchy deformation tensor. From it we define the Eulerian finite strain tensor
e as
2eij =  ij − cij or 2e = I − c ( 29 )
so that now

( dx ) − ( dX ) ( 30 )
2 2
= 2eij dxi dx j = dx  2e  dx
Both E AB and eij are, of course, symmetric second-order tensors, as can be observed from
their definitions.
The Lagrangian and Eulerian finite strain tensors expressed by Eqs.(25) and (29),
respectively, are given in terms of the appropriate deformation gradients. These same tensors
may also be developed in terms of displacement gradients. For this purpose, we begin by
writing Eq.(11) in its time-independent form consistent with deformation analysis. In
component notation, the material description is
ui ( X A ) = xi ( X A ) − X i ( 31 − a )
and the spatial description is
u A ( xi ) = x A − X A ( xi ) ( 31 − b )
From the first of these, Eq.(25) becomes
2 E AB = xi , A xi , B −  AB = ( ui , A +  iA )( ui , B +  iB ) −  AB
which reduces to
2 E AB = uA, B + uB , A + ui , Aui , B ( 32 )
and from the second, Eq.(29) becomes

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 Chapter Three: Kinematics of Deformation and Motion

(
2eij =  ij − X A,i X A, j =  ij − (  Ai − uA,i )  Aj − uA, j )
which reduces to
2eij = ui , j + u j ,i − uA,i uA, j ( 33 )

Example 2: Let the simple shear deformation x1 = X 1 ;

x2 = X 2 + kX 3 ; x3 = X 3 + kX 2 , where k is a
constant, be applied to the small cube of edge
dimensions dL shown in the sketch.
(a) Draw the deformed shape of face ABGH of the
cube.
(b) Determine the difference ( dx ) − ( dX ) for the
2 2

diagonals AG, BH and OG of the cube.

Solution:
(a) According to the mapping equations given by Eq.(31), the displacement field for this
given shear deformation is
u1 = x1 − X 1 = 0; u2 = x2 − X 2 = kX 3 ; u3 = x3 − X 3 = kX 2
Therefore, using this displacement field, the particles originally at points A , B , G and H
are displaced respectively to the points a , b , g and h as follow

  X 1 = dL     x1 = dL  
      
A X = 0  a  x2 = 0  
  2 
 X =0     x3 = 0   
    
 3

  X 1 = dL     x1 = dL  
      
b x = dL
 B  X 2 = dL     2  
 X =0    x3 = kdL   
  
  ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ → 
3 After displacement u

  X 1 = dL   x = u+ X   x1 = dL  
     
G
  2 X = dL    2 (
g x = 1 + k ) 
dL
  X = dL     
  3     x 3 = ( 1 + k ) dL 
  X 1 = dL    
  x1 = dL  
    
H
  2 X = 0   h  x2 = kdL  
  X = dL      
  3    x3 = dL  
So, all particles in the plane X 2 X 3 (for X 1 = dL ) remain in this plane (since x1 = X 1 = dL
), and the square face ABGH becomes the diamond-shaped parallelogram abgh shown below.

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 Continuum Mechanics For Engineers By Dr. Djomo Mbong

(b) Let evaluate the difference

( dx ) − ( dX ) for the diagonals AG,
2 2

BH and OG of the cube.

Let evaluate first of all the deformation gradient

tensor F . According to Eq.(19) and knowing

that x1 = X 1 ; x2 = X 2 + kX 3 ;
x3 = X 3 + kX 2 , we obtain
1 0 0 
F =  FiA  =  xi , A  =  0 1 k 
 0 k 1 

Therefore, we can evaluate the Green’s deformation tensor C as follow

T
1 0 0  1 0 0  1 0 0  1 0 0
C = F T  F =  0 1 k    0 1 k  =  0 1 k    0 1 k 
 0 k 1   0 k 1   0 k 1   0 k 1 
1 0 0 
=  0 1 + k 2 2k 
 0 2k 1 + k 2 
Finally, using Eq.(25), we evaluate the Lagrangian finite strain tensor E as
1 0 0  1 0 0 0 0 0
2 E = C − I =  0 1 + k 2 2k  −  0 1 0  =  0 k 2 2k 
 0 2k 1 + k 2   0 0 1   0 2k k 2 
Using Eq.(26), we can now evaluate the difference ( dx ) − ( dX ) for the diagonals AG, BH
2 2

and OG:
- For the diagonals AG, dX = AG = ( 0, dL, dL ) , so

0 0 0  0 
( dx ) − ( dX ) = dX  2 E  dX =  0, dL, dL  0 k 2 2k   dL  = 2 ( k 2 + 2k ) dL2
2 2

 0 2k k 2   dL
- For the diagonals BH, dX = BH = ( 0, − dL, dL ) , so

0 0 0  0 
( dx ) − ( dX ) = dX  2 E  dX =  0, − dL, dL  0 k 2 2k   − dL  = 2 ( k 2 − 2k ) dL2
2 2

 0 2k k 2   dL 
- For the diagonals OG, dX = OG = ( dL, dL, dL ) , so

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 Chapter Three: Kinematics of Deformation and Motion

0 0 0   dL
( dx ) − ( dX ) = dX  2 E  dX =  dL, dL, dL  0 k 2 2k   dL = 2 ( k 2 + 2k ) dL2
2 2

 0 2k k 2   dL

5. Infinitesimal Deformation Theory

If the numerical values of all the components of the displacement and the displacement
gradient tensors are very small we may neglect the squares and products of these quantities in
comparison to the gradients themselves so that Eqs.(32) and (33) reduce to
2 E AB = uA, B + uB , A ( 34 )
and
2eij = ui , j + u j ,i ( 35 )
These expressions are known as the linearized Lagrangian and Eulerian strain tensors,
respectively. Furthermore, to the same order of approximation,
ui u x k u  u  u uk u u
= i = i  k +  kA  = i + i  kA  i  kA ( 36 )
X A x k X A x k  X A  x k X A x k x k
where we have used the relationship x = u + X and have neglected the second order term
( ui xk )( uk X A ) compare to first order term ( ui xk )  kA because of small
displacements in this case. Therefore, to the first order of approximation for the case of small
displacement gradients, it is unimportant whether we differentiate the displacement components
with respect to the material or spatial coordinates. In view of this, we may display the equivalent
relative displacement gradients for small deformation theory as either ui , A or ui , j . Similarly,
it can be shown that in the linear theory uA , B and uA , j are equivalent. It follows that to the
same order of approximation, from Eqs.(34) and (35),
E AB  eij iA jB ( 37 )
and it is customary to define a single infinitesimal strain tensor for which we introduce the
symbol  ij as

ui u j u u
2 ij =  Aj +  Bi = i + j = ui , j + u j ,i ( 38 )
X A X B x j x i
Because the strain tensors E AB , eij , and  ij are all symmetric, second-order tensors,
the entire development for principal strains, strain invariants, and principal strain directions
may be carried out exactly as was done for the stress tensor in Chapter 2.
The components of  have specific physical interpretations which we now consider.
Within the context of small deformation theory, we express Eq.(26) in the modified form
( dx ) − ( dX ) ( 39 )
2 2
= 2 ij dX i dX j = dX  2  dX

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 Continuum Mechanics For Engineers By Dr. Djomo Mbong

which, upon factoring the left-hand side and dividing by ( dX ) , becomes

2

dx − dX dx + dX dX i dX j
= 2 ij
dX dX dX dX
But dX i dX = N i , a unit vector in the direction of dX , and for small deformations we may
assume ( dx + dX ) dX  2 , so that
dx − dX
=  ij N i N j = Nˆ    Nˆ ( 40 )
dX
The scalar ratio on the left-hand side of this equation is clearly the change in length per unit
original length for the element in the direction of N̂ . It is known as the longitudinal strain,
or the normal strain and we denote it by e . If, for example, N̂ is taken in successively the
( N̂ )
X 1 , X 2 and X 3 directions so that Nˆ = Iˆ1 , Nˆ = Iˆ2 and Nˆ = Iˆ3 respectively then, we
respectively obtain the normal strains below:
e Iˆ = Iˆ1    Iˆ1 =  11 ; e Iˆ = Iˆ2    Iˆ2 =  22 ; e Iˆ = Iˆ3    Iˆ3 =  33 ( 41)
( 1) ( 2) ( 3)
Thus, the diagonal elements of the small (infinitesimal) strain tensor  represent normal
strains in the coordinate directions.
To gain an insight into the physical meaning of the off-diagonal elements of the
infinitesimal strain tensor  , we consider differential vectors dX (1) and dX ( 2) at position P
( 1) ( 2)
which are deformed into vectors dx and dx , respectively. In this case, we have from
Eq.(20) together with Eqs.(25) and (26),

dx ( )  dx ( ) = F  dX ( )  F  dX ( ) = dX ( )  F T  F  dX ( ) = dX ( )  C  dX (
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2)

1
( )
= dX ( )  I + 2 E  dX ( ) = dX ( )  dX ( ) + dX ( )  2 E  dX (
2 1 2 1 2)

Since we are in case of small deformation, in the previous relation, we can replace E by  and
we have,
dx ( )  dx ( ) = dX ( )  dX ( ) + dX ( )  2  dX (
2)
1 2 1 2 1
( 42 )
( 1) ( 2)
which, if we choose dX and dX perpendicular to one another, reduces to
( 1) ( 2)
= dx ( ) dx ( ) cos = dX ( )  2  dX (
2)
dx  dx
1 2 1
( 43 )
where  is the angle between the deformed vectors as shown in Fig.3. If now we let
 = (  2 ) −  , the angle  measures the small change in the original right angle between
dX ( ) and dX ( ) and also
1 2

 
cos = cos  −   = sin   
2 

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 Chapter Three: Kinematics of Deformation and Motion

since  is very small for infinitesimal deformations. Therefore, using Eq.(43) and assuming as
( 1)
 dX ( ) and dx ( )  dX ( ) because of small deformations,
1 2 2
before that dx

Figure 3: The right angle between line segments and

in the reference configuration becomes , the angle between
segments and , in the deformed configuration.

dX ( ) dX ( )
1 2
  cos = (1)  2  ( 2)  Nˆ (1)  2  Nˆ ( 2) ( 44 )
dx dx
ˆ = Iˆ and Nˆ = Iˆ and designate the angle  as  , we
Here, if we take we obtain N ( 1) 1 ( 2) 2 12

obtain
 11  12  13   0 
 12 = 2 1,0,0  21  22  23  1  = 2 12 ( 45 )
 31  32  33   0 
so that by choosing the undeformed vector pairs in Eq.(43) in coordinate directions we may
generalize Eq.(45) to obtain
 ij = 2 ij , (i  j) ( 46 )
This establishes the relationship between the off-diagonal components of  ij and the so-called
engineering shear strain components  ij , which represent the changes in the original right
angles between the coordinate axes in the undeformed configuration.
The infinitesimal strain tensor is frequently written in matrix form as
  11  12 2  13 2 

 ij  =  21 2  22  23 2  ( 47 )
 
 31 2  32 2  33 

If N̂ ( 1) and N̂ ( 2 ) are chosen in principal strain directions, Eq.(44) becomes

 = Nˆ (1)  2 *  Nˆ ( 2) = 0
from which we may generalize to conclude that principal strain directions remain orthogonal
under infinitesimal deformation. Therefore, a small rectangular parallelepiped of undeformed

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 Continuum Mechanics For Engineers By Dr. Djomo Mbong

Figure 4: A rectangular parallelepiped with edge lengths , and in the reference

configuration becomes a skewed parallelepiped with edge lengths , and in the deformed
configuration.

( 1) ( 2) ( 3)
edge dimensions dX , dX and dX taken in the principal strain directions will be
deformed into another rectangular parallelepiped having edge lengths
dx ( ) = 1 +  ( i )  dX ( ) ,
i
 
i
( i = 1,2,3 ) ( 48 )
as shown in Fig.4, where  ( i ) are the normal strains in principal directions. The change in
volume per unit original volume of the parallelepiped is
  ( 1)   ( 2)   ( 3) ( 1) ( 2) ( 3)
V 1 +  (1)  dX 1 +  ( 2)  dX 1 +  ( 3)  dX − dX dX dX
=
V dX ( ) dX ( ) dX ( )
1 2 3 ( 49 )
  ( 1) +  ( 2 ) +  ( 3 )
neglecting terms involving products of the principal strains. The ratio V V , being the first

invariant of  , is called the cubical dilatation. We shall denote it by the symbol e , and write
e = V V =  ii ( 50 )
Because  is a symmetrical second-
order tensor, the development of Mohr’s circles
for small strain, as well as the decomposition
of  into its spherical and deviator
component tensors follows in much the same
way as the analogous concepts for stress in
Chapter 2. One distinct difference is that for the
Mohr’s circles, the shear strain axis (ordinate)
has units of as shown by the typical diagram of
Fig.5. The infinitesimal spherical strain
tensor is represented by a diagonal matrix
having equal elements denoted by
Figure 5: Typical Mohr’s circles for strain.

49
 Chapter Three: Kinematics of Deformation and Motion

 M =  ii 3 = e 3 , known as the mean normal strain. The infinitesimal deviator strain

tensor  is defined by
1
ij =  ij −  ij kk =  ij −  ij M ( 51)
3
and in matrix form
 11 −  M  12  13 
 = ij  =   21  22 −  M  23  ( 52 )
  31  32  33 −  M 

A state of plane strain parallel to the X 1 X 2 plane exists at P if

 33 =  13 =  31 =  23 =  32 = 0 ( 53 )
at that point. Also, plane strain relative to the X 1 X 2 plane in the continuum body as a whole
exists if Eq.(53) is satisfied everywhere in the body, and if in addition the remaining non-zero
components are independent of X 3 . With respect to axes OX 1 X 2 X 3 rotated about X 3 by
the angle  relative to OX 1 X 2 X 3 as shown by Fig.6, the transformation equations for plane
strain follow the tensor transformation formula, Eq.(43) of Chapter 1. In conjunction with the
table of direction cosines of Fig.5, the results are
 11 +  22  11 −  22  12
 11 = + cos ( 2 ) +
sin ( 2 ) ( 54 − a )
2 2 2
 +  22  11 −  22 
 = 11
 22 − cos ( 2 ) − 12 sin ( 2 ) ( 54 − b )
2 2 2
 = − (  11 −  22 ) sin ( 2 ) +  12 cos ( 2 )
 12 ( 54 − c )
Because shear strains are very difficult to measure experimentally, the state of strain at a point
is usually determined by recording three separate longitudinal strains at the point (using a strain
gage rosette) and substituting these values into Eq.(54) to calculate  12 .

Figure 6: Rotated axes for plane strain and Transformation table for plane strain.

Example 3: A delta rosette has the shape of an equilateral triangle, and records longitudinal
strains in the directions x1 , x1 and x1 shown in the sketch. If the measured strains in these

50
 Continuum Mechanics For Engineers By Dr. Djomo Mbong

directions are  11 = −3  10−4 ,

 11 = 4  10−4 , and  11 = 2  10−4 where
the units are m m (dimensionless),
(a) Determine  .
 22 ,  12 and  22
(b) Show that  11 +  22 =  11  +  22
 as
the first strain invariant requires.

Solution:
(a) Let us determine  .
 22 ,  12 and  22
Indeed, we use only Eq.(54-a) here, which we write for x1 and x1 . Thus, for  =   = 60
and  =   = 120 , respectively, we have
 11 +  22  11 −  22  12
 11 = + cos ( 2  ) +
sin ( 2  )
2 2 2
 +  − 
 11 = 11 22 + 11 22 cos ( 2  ) + 12 sin ( 2  )
2 2 2
By replacing each element by its value, we obtain after arrangement
3 22 + 3 12 = 19  10−4
3 22 − 3 12 = 11  10−4
By solving this system, we obtain
4
 22 = 5  10−4 and  12 =  10−4
3
By using Eq.(54-b) for the direction x1 , we obtain
 11 +  22  11 −  22  12
 =
 22 − cos ( 2  ) − sin ( 2  )
2 2 2
By replacing each element by its value, we obtain
−3  10−4 + 5  10−4 −3  10−4 − 5  10−4 4
 =
 22 − cos ( 120 ) −  10−4 sin ( 120 )
2 2 2 3
Which gives,
 = −2  10−4
 22
(b) Let verify that  11 +  22 =  11 +  22
 as the first strain invariant requires.
 11 +  22 = −3  10−4 + 5  10−4 = 2  10−4
  +  22
. So,  11 +  22 =  11  .
 +  22
 11  = 4  10−4 − 2  10−4 = 2  10−4

In the previous sections, the determination of the strain tensor  was based on that fact
that the displacement field u was known. The reverse can happen where we are concern by the

51
 Chapter Three: Kinematics of Deformation and Motion

determination of the displacement field u when the strain tensor  is known. Indeed, we
consider the six independent strain-displacement relations, Eq.(38)
ui u j
+ = 2 ij
x j x i
as a system of partial differential equations for determining the three displacement components
ui (assuming the  ij are known as functions of xi ), the system is over-determined, and we
cannot in general find three single-valued functions ui = ui x j ( ) satisfying the six partial
differential equations. Therefore, some restrictive conditions must be imposed upon the strain
components (actually upon derivatives of the strain components) if the equations above are to
be satisfied by a single-valued displacement field. Such conditions are expressed by the strain
compatibility equations
 ij ,mn +  mn ,ij −  im , jn −  jn ,im = 0 ( 55 )
In three dimensions, there are 3 = 81 equations in all (four free indices) in Eq.(55), but only
4

six of these are distinct. These six conditions are both necessary and sufficient for a single-
valued displacement field of a body occupying a simply connected domain.

6. Stretch Ratios

Referring again to Fig.2, we define the ratio of the magnitudes of dx and dX to be the
stretch ratio,  (or simply the stretch). In particular, for the differential element in the
direction of the unit vector N̂ at P , we write
dx

( N̂ )
= ( 56 )
dX
ˆ . As a matter of convenience we often
where dx is the deformed magnitude of dX = dX N
prefer to work with stretch-squared values,
2
 dx 
 N̂ = 
2
( )  dX  ( 57 )
Thus, from Eqs.(20) and (24),

( dx ) = dx  dx = F  dX  F  dX = dX  C  dX
2

so that dividing by ( dX ) ,
2

dX dX
 2Nˆ =
( ) dX
C  = Nˆ  C  Nˆ ( 58 )
dX
for the element originally in the direction of N̂ .
In an analogous way, we define the stretch ratio ( n̂) , in the direction of n̂ = dx dx
at p by the equation,

52
 Continuum Mechanics For Engineers By Dr. Djomo Mbong

1 dX
= ( 59 )
( nˆ ) dx
Here, recalling from Eq.(21) and by using Eq.(28) we obtain

( dX ) = dX  dX = F −1  dx  F −1  dx = dx  c  dx
2

so that dividing by ( dx ) ,
2

1 dx dx
= c  = nˆ  c  nˆ ( 60 )
 2
( nˆ ) dx dx

Consider next the unit extension (longitudinal strain) in any direction N̂ at P . This
may be expressed in terms of the stretch as
dx − dX
e Nˆ =
( )
=  Nˆ − 1 = Nˆ  C  Nˆ − 1
( ) ( 61)
dX
The change in angle between any two line elements may also be given in terms of
( 1) ( 2) ( 1) ( 2)
stretch. Let dX and dX be arbitrary vectors which become dx and dx , respectively,
( 1) ( 2) ( 1) ( 2)
during a deformation. By the dot product, dx  dx = dx dx cos , we may compute
( 1) ( 2)
the angle  between dx and dx from its cosine, taking the form

dx ( ) dx ( ) F  dX ( ) F  dX ( )
1 2 1 2
cos = (1)  ( 2) = 
dx dx ( 1)
dX  C  dX ( 1)
dX ( )  C  dX ( )
2 2

( 1)
dX ( ) , we obtain
2
or upon dividing the numerator and denominator by the scalar product dX

Nˆ 1  C  Nˆ 2
cos = ( 62 )
 Nˆ  Nˆ
( 1) ( 2)
( 1)
 dX ( ) = dX ( ) dX ( ) cos  , where  is the angle between
2 1 2
In a similar fashion, from dX
dX ( ) and dX ( ) , we obtain from Eq.(60)
1 2

dX ( ) dX ( )
1 2
cos  = 1

dX ( ) dX ( )
2
=
nˆ1  c  nˆ 2
nˆ1  c  nˆ1 nˆ 2  c  nˆ 2
= ( nˆ1 ) ( nˆ 2 ) nˆ1  c  nˆ 2 ( ) ( 63 )

which gives the original angle between elements in the directions n̂1 and n̂2 of the current
configuration.
In the deformation process, we can evaluate also the ratio of the deformed volume to
the original
dx ( ) dx ( ) dx ( )
1 2 3
dV
= =  Nˆ  Nˆ  Nˆ
( 1) ( 2) ( 3) ( 64 − a )
dV  dX (1) dX ( 2) dX ( 3)

Where N̂ 1 , N̂ 2 and N̂ 3 are the principal directions of the tensor C . The previous relation,
when Eq.(58) is used, becomes
53
 Chapter Three: Kinematics of Deformation and Motion

dV
= C ( 1) C ( 2 ) C ( 3 ) = I
3( C )
( 64 − b )
dV 

Where I is the third invariant of the tensor C (which correspond to the determinant of the
()
3 C

matrix C well expressed by Eq.(51) of chapter 1). The importance of this second form of
Eq.(64-b) is that it is an invariant expression and can be calculated without reference to principal

axes of C .

Example 4: A homogeneous deformation is given by the mapping equations,

x1 = X 1 − X 2 + X 3 , x2 = X 2 − X 3 + X 1 and x3 = X 3 − X 1 + X 2 .
(a) Determine the stretch ratio in the direction of (
Nˆ 1 = Iˆ1 + Iˆ2 ) 2
(b) Determine the angle 12 in the deformed configuration between elements that were
ˆ = Iˆ .
originally in the directions of N̂ 1 and N 2 2

(c) Determine the volume ratio dV dV  using Eq.(64-a), and verify using Eq.(64-b).

Solution:
For the given deformation, according to Eqs.(19) and (24),

 1 −1 1   3 − 1 − 1
F =  1 1 −1 and C =  −1 3 −1
 −1 1 1   −1 −1 3 
(a) Therefore, from Eq.(58),
 1 
 2
 3 − 1 − 1  
 1 1   1 
 2Nˆ = Nˆ 1  C  Nˆ 1 =  , ,0   −1 3 −1   = 2
( 1)  2 2  2
 −1 −1 3   
0 
 
And we obtain the stretch ratio as
 = 2
( Nˆ 1 )

(b) Let determine the angle 12 in the deformed configuration between elements that were
ˆ = Iˆ .
originally in the directions of N̂ 1 and N 2 2

According to Eq.(62), we have

54
 Continuum Mechanics For Engineers By Dr. Djomo Mbong

Nˆ 1  C  Nˆ 2
cos12 =
 Nˆ  Nˆ
( 1) ( 2)
 3 −1 −1  0
2 ˆ  C  Nˆ =  0,1,0  −1 3 −1 1  = 3
With  ˆ = N   = 3.
( 2)
N 2 2    ( Nˆ 2 )
 −1 −1 3   0
Therfore, we obtain
 3 −1 −1  0
Nˆ 1  C  Nˆ 2 1  1 1   1  = 1
cos12 = = , ,0 − 1 3 − 1
 Nˆ  Nˆ
( 1) ( 2) 2 3  2 2     3
 −1 −1 3   0
Thus,
12 = 54.7

(c) Let determine the volume ratio dV dV  using Eq.(64-a), and verify using Eq.(64-b).

ˆ =  1 , 1 , 1 ,
We show that a set of principal axes for the C tensor are N 1  
 3 3 3
 1 1   1 1 2 
Nˆ 2 =  ,− ,0 and Nˆ 3 =  , ,−  . Thus, using Eq.(58), we find
 2 2   6 6 6 
 Nˆ = 1 ,  Nˆ = 2 and  Nˆ = 2 .
( 1) ( 2) ( 3)
From Eq.(64-a), we obtain
dV
=  Nˆ  Nˆ  Nˆ = 1  2  2 = 4
dV  ( 1) ( 2) ( 3)
and from Eq.(64-b),
3 −1 −1
dV
dV 
= I
3( C ) ()
= det C = −1 3 −1 = 16 = 4
−1 −1 3

55